TS 

.!3 7 



The 

Practical Lumberman 



BY 



Bernard Brereton 




FOIRTII EDITION 

1921 



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The 

Practical Lumberman 

FOURTH EDITION 

PROPERTIES AND [USES OF 
DOUGLAS FIR, CALIFORNIA 
REDWOOD AND THE LEAD- 
ING COMMERCIAL WOODS 
OF THE PACIFIC COAST 



Rapid Methods of Computing Specifications, Contents 

and Weight of Squared and Tapering 

Lumber, Octagon Spars 

and Logs 

LOG TABLES AND GRADING RULES 

THE METRIC SYSTEM 

Includes Conversion Tables and Information 

Relative to Foreign Export 

Shipments 

TABLE OF DISTANCES 

From Pacific Coast Ports to Foreign Ports, also 

Inland Waters of Puget Sound, Columbia 

River and British Columbia 



THIS BOOK IS FOR SALE ONLY B|fJH^ M^THOR A.ND PUBLISHER 

BERNARD^ BRERETON 

P. O. BOX 1158 TACOMA, WASH. 

MAILED ANYWHERE ON 
RECEIPT OF 

PRICE, $1.50 

British Countries Using Sterling, Price 
Seven Shillings, Postpaid 






COPYRIGHT 1921 

BY 

BERNARD BRERETON 



M\ 20 1921 
ICU617402 



from the press of 

Pioneer Bindery and Printing Co. 

tacoma, wash. 



PREFACE 



The object of the author in presenting this book to the public is to furnish 
reliable data pertaining to the properties and uses of Douglas Fir, California 
Redwood and Pacific Coast Forest Products. 

The various subjects treated will save the Lumberman and Logger many 
hours of research, as the numerous problems covered cannot be solved without 
the practical and technical knowledge that can only be gained by a long and 
varied experience in both the Lumber and Shipping industries. 

In the section of this book devoted to logs will be found the log tables in 
general use in British Columbia. Washington, Oregon and California, the methods 
for computing same, also the log grading rules and a special table computed by 
the author showing the actual or solid contents in board feet of logs ranging from 
six to forty-eight inches in diameter. 

Shipowners, Captains and officers of the merchant marine, or any one con- 
nected with the operation of cargo carriers, will appreciate the information re- 
garding the system for computing the general and lumber carrying capacity of 
oil and coal burning steamers also the Table of Distances which will enable the 
reader to ascertain the distance from the leading ports of the World, to any 
Douglas Fir or Redwood Cargo Mill on the Pacific Coast. 

As Belgium, France, Italy and Countries using the "Metric System" require 
lumber and specifications to conform to their standard, the writer has special- 
ized on this subject, so as to enable shipowners and lumbermen to successfully 
cater to this trade, which will increase to vast proportions as soon as exchange 
is stabilized and the demands of the Foreign buyer are satisfactorily complied 
with. 

The increasing number of orders from the Atlantic Coast for Douglas Fir, 
which is usually shipped there in cargo lots via the Panama Canal, is sufficient 
evidence that the production of Eastern Pine is fast diminishing, and it is only 
a matter of a few years when the Southern States will cease to be a factor in the 
export lumber market. 

The United States and Foreign nations will then be mainly dependent on the 
forests of the West as a source of their supply of lumber for finish and heavy 
or light constructional purposes. It is therefore only a question of business 
policy that anyone engaged in the lumber or shipping industries, regardless of 
their position or location should avail themselves of the opportunity offered in 
this book to increase their knowledge of Western lumber so that they can suc- 
cessfully cater to this trade. 

To those desirous of obtaining reliable data concerning Douglas Fir or Cal- 
ifornia Redwood, the information in this book can be absolutely relied upon as 
I have personally supervised the manufacture, inspection or shipment of up- 
wards of fifty million board feet of Pacific Coast Lumber annually for a period 
of over twenty-five years. 

While the treatment of some of the subjects is necessarily brief it is to the 
point as the most casual perusal will disclose and if this work is the means of 
enlightenirig buyers and sellers of lumber throughout the world on the value and 
use of Pacific Coast Forest Products, one great purpose of the writer will be well 
accomplished. 

In conclusion, I wish to express ray appreciation to the officials of the United 
States and British Columbia Forest Service, the Bureau of Foreign and Do- 
mestic Commerce, the Lumber Trade Journals and my friends in the Lumber 
and Shipping Industries who have so courteously furnished me with much valu- 
able material for this work. 

BERNARD BRERETON, 

Author and Publisher. 




DOUGLAS FIR 



DOUGLAS FIR 

(Pseudolsuga Taxifolia) 



Douglas Fir, widely known as Oregon Pine, reaches its best development for 
commercial purposes on the Pacific Coast, from the head of the Skeena River, in 
British Columbia, and southward through the States of Washington and Oregon 
to Central California. 

The wood is comparatively light but very strong; it is the strongest wood in 
the world for its weight that is obtainable in commercial sizes and quantities. 

With the exception of Spruce, Douglas Fir is in greater demand for Airplane 
construction than any other wood, and material of excellent qual ty for this 
purpose can be found in unlimited amounts. 

THE CORRECT NAME 

Douglas Fir is named after David Douglas, botanist, who explored British 
Columbia (then called New Caledonia) in 1825-30. It is the most important 
timber tree on the North American Continent, and is known by a great variety 
of names, such as Oregon Pine, Oregon Fir, Washington Fir, Yellow Fir, Red 
Fir, Douglas Spruce, Red Spruce, Puget Sound Pine, and British Columbia Pine. 

The employment of so large a number of names for one class of tree is very 
confusing, detrimental and often misleading, and for these reasons the United 
States Forest Service some years ago took a lumber census which resulted in their 
adopting the name Douglas Fir, as it was used more than all others combined. 

MERITS AND USES 

The stand of timber in Oregon and Washington alone, it is estimated, com- 
prises 25% of the remaining stand of timber in the United States, and in British 
Columbia is estimated to comprise one-third of the total timber supply of Canada. 
It is considered the strongest softwood in the world. (See United States Forest 
Service Bulletin No. 108). Douglas Fir is moderately hard but easy to work, 
straight grained, resilient, tough and durable. 

Combining these qualities of great strength, light weight, ease of working and 
handling, Douglas Fir more than any other commercial timber, is the ideal wood 
for practically all building and structual purposes. Owing to the great size of 
the trees, Douglas Fir timber can be furnished in the largest dimensions re- 
quired in modern heavy construction. 



MERITS AND USES— Continued. 

As complying with qualities essential in a wood acceptable for general build- 
ing purposes, Douglas Fir is practically impervious to water, holds nails firmly, 
takes stain well in any shade or color, and combines beauty, utility and dura- 
bility. 

It is a superior wood for bridge and wharf building, and heavy timbers or 
joists where great strength is required, and is unsurpassed for masts, spars, 
derricks, ship and deck plank, (decking), traming material, car sills, car siding, 
car roofing, car lining, flooring, ceiling, silo stock, sash, doors and interior finish. 

The lower grades are used in large quantities for underground mining purposes. 

. The United States Forest Service Bulletin No. 88, says: "Douglas Fir may, 
perhaps, be considered the most important of American woods. * * * It is 
manufactured into every form of lumber known to the saw mill operator. For 
house construction Douglas Fir is manufactured into all forms of dimension stock, 
and is used particularly for general building and construction purposes. Its 
strength and comparative lightness fit it for joists, floor beams, and other timbers 
which must carry loads. 

"The comparative hardness of the wood fits it for flooring and it meets a 
large demand. Douglas Fir edge-grain flooring is considered superior to that 
made from any other softwood. 

"Clear lumber, sawed flat grain, shows pleasing figures, and the contrast be- 
tween the spring and summer wood has been considered as attractive as the grain 
of quarter-sawn oak. It takes stain well, and by staining, the beauty of the 
grain may be more strongly brought out and a number of rare woods can be 
successfully imitated." 

The durability of the wood, and the fact that it resists saturation by water 
cause it to be used in large quantities for wooden piping, for continuous stave 
and jointed conduits used in power and irrigation works, for silos and tanks. It 
makes first-class railway ties, whether treated with preservatives or not. Street 
pavement of cresoted Douglas Fir blocks properly laid is noiseless, dustless, 
economical in upkeep, and is durable and long wearing even under heavy traffic 
such as that of freight and dock yards. The unusual valuable combination of 
qualities possessed by Douglas Fir adapt it to such a variety of uses that a com- 
plete list of them would cover nearly all the uses to which wood can be put. 

WATERBORNE SHIPMENTS DURING 1920 
From British Columbia, Washington and Oregon 

According to the report of the Pacific Lumber Inspection Bureau, Seattle, 
Wash., a grand total of 1,840,791,139 Board Feet of lumber was moved by water 
from British Columbia, Washington and Oregon. This represents a gain of 
475,786,777 Board Feet over the year 1919. Of this amount 1,199,704,338 
Board Feet was shipped to Domestic Ports and 641,086,801 Board Feet was 
shipped Foreign. 

California took a total of 1,066,123,859 Board Feet in the year 1920, com- 
pared with 851,681,985 Board Feet in the year 1919. 

The bulk of these shipments were Douglas Fir lumber, laths and pickets, 
with a small percentage of Sitka Spruce, Western Cedar, Western White Pine 
and other Pacific Coast Forest Products. 



CARGO AND PARCEL SHIPMENTS TO FOREIGN PORTS DURING 1920 

Statement for waterborne shipments supplied by the Pacific Lumber 
Inspection Bureau, Seattle, Wash. 
Foreign Shipments Board Feet 

Arabia 25,275 

AusSafia 106,110,992 

Australia 136,503,846 

East Indie's 251,189 

Ea^indies — ^::-::::::: 1,615,335 

India and Strait Settlements J'rJ^'no^ 

Japan '^'?^5'?^5 

Manchuria , IrA?.^ 

Mexico V^A't^ 

New Zealand .I'tV^'Vl 

South Africa Jl'nm'Ifi? 

South America— East Coast no'Von'om 

South America— West Coast ^^'^^vi^l 

South Sea Islands , M^^li^t 

U. K. and Continent ^f^^^^'.^§ 

West Indies - 19,680,427 

Total 641,086,801 

CARGO AND PARCEL SHIPMENTS TO DOMESTIC PORTS DURING 

1920 
Domestic Shipments Board Feet 

Alaska 9,754,686 

Atlantic'Coastl]''!--'----]'-^-]-^ 49,706,591 

Hawaiian Islands 59,690,547 

Panama "'^^I'^ol 

Philippine Islands ^420,988 

Total 133,580,479 

CARGO AND PARCEL SHIPMENTS TO CALIFORNIA DURING 1920 

California Board Feet 

Total 1,066,123,859 

SUMMARY OF WATERBORNE SHIPMENTS DURING 1920 

DOMESTIC FOREIGN TOTAL 

Board Feet Board Feet Board Feet 

British Columbia 7,158,968 139,465,301 146,624,269 

Puget Sound 291,762,775 245,467,064 537,229,839 

Grays Harbor 293,273,214 33,023,616 326,296,830 

Willapa Harbor 95,145,541 7,900,049 103,045,590 

Columbia River 271,164,905 214,313,147 485,478,052 

Coos Bay 241,198,935 917,624 242,116,559 

Total 1,199,704,338 641,086,801 1,840,791,139 

COMPARISON OF WATERBORNE SHIPMENTS DURING 1920 FROM 
BRITISH COLUMBIA, WASHINGTON AND OREGON 

Board Feet 

British Columbia 146,624,269 

Washington 1,016,812,739 

Oregon.. . 677,354,131 

Total 1,840,791,139 

—7— 



BEST EXPORT MARKETS FOR DOUGLAS FIR 

The bulk of shipments designated "U. K. and Continent" in the forego- 
ing statement went to Great Britain, consequently it can be considered, that 
the best export markets for Douglas Fir are as follows: Great Britain, China, 
Australia, West Coast of South America and Japan. 



AVERAGE STRENGTH VALUES FOR STRUCTUAL TIIVIBERS 
Taken from U. S. Forest Service Bulletin 108 

GREEN 



^ 

§ 
^ 


If, 


i 

6 

z 


1 

2« 


M 


>> 


II! 
if: 


-J. 


lit 
111 


sin's* 


.1 f 

fim'oQ 


Douglas 
Fir 


8x16 


134 


10.9 


31.8 


28.9 


4282 


6605 


1611 


100.0 


100.0 


Western 
Hemlock 


8x16 


27 


17.6 


41.9 


28.1 


3761 


5821 


1489 


88.1 


92.4 


Long- 
leaf 
Pine 


12x12 
10x16 
8x16 
6x16 
6x10 


13 


14.6 


29.2 


35.4 


3855 


6437 


1466 


97.4 


91.0 


Short- 
leaf 
Pine 


8x16 
8x14 
8x12 


33 


12.3 


48.4 


31.4 


3376 


5948 


1546 


90.0 


96.0 


Loblolly 
Pine 


5x12 
8x16 


78 


6.2 


58.0 


31.2 


3266 


5568 


1467 


84.4 


91.1 


Western 
Larch 


8x16 
8x12 


43 


23.9 


50.5 


28.7 


3677 


5562 


1364 


84.2 


84.6 


Redwood 


8x16 
6x12 
7x 9 


30 


19.5 


90.2 


23.3 


4323 


5327 


1202 


80.6 


74.6 



NOTE: — Care was taken in selecting Douglas Fir material to secure a large number of stringers 
of low grade. Douglas Fir contained more knots than its nearest competitor in strength Even 
with this handicap it shows greater strength values than other species. 



AVERAGE STRENGTH VALUES FOR STRUCTUAL TIMBERS 
Established by the U. S. Government 

Air-Seasoned 

Green Stringers Stringers 

SPECIES Breaking Strength Breaking Strength 

Lbs. Lbs. 

sq. in. Percent sq. in. Percent 

Douglas Fir 6605 100.0 7142 100.0 

LongleafPine -. 6437 97.4 5957 83.6 

Shortleaf Pine 5948 90.0 7033 98.5 

Western Hemlock 5821 88.1 7109 99.6 

Loblolly Pine 5568 84.4 6259 87.7 

Western Larch 5562 84.2 6534 91.5 

Redwood 5327 80.6 4573 64.1 

Tamarack 4984 75.5 5865 82.3 

Norway Pine 3767 57.0 5255 73 7 

Note that Douglas Fir is unequalled in strength by any other species. It Is 25 percent 
lighter in weight than its nearest competitor in strength. 



DOUGLAS FIR RAILROAD TIES 

STRENGTH OF DOUGLAS FIR COMPARED TO BALTIC TIMBER 
The following table shows the results of tests made by the Great 

Eastern Railway Company of London, England, on an equal number of 

Douglas Fir and Baltic Ties (Sleepers). 

The ties were partly seasoned and the table shows the actual weight 

at time of test. 



Description 


Weight per 
Cubic Ft. 


Specific 
Gravity 


Ultimate Strength 
Lbs. per Sq. In. 


of Timber 


Depression 


Tension 


Douglas Fir 

Baltic Timber 


37.91 
31.06 


.607 
.497 


5,695 
3,950 


11,450 
5 730 







DOUGLAS FIR RAILROAD TIES DELIVERED TO EASTERN RAILROADS IN THE 

UNITED STATES DURING 1920 

Statement supplied by R. L. Wyman, Supervising Inspector, Portland, Oregon. 

From Oregon and Washington 

Shipped to Atlantic Coast via Panama Canal 42,000,000 Board Feet 

Shipped by Rail 28,000,000 Board Feet 



Grand Total 70,000,000 Board Feet 



DOUGLAS FIR RAILROAD TIES AND CROSSINGS EXPORTED DURING 1920 
Statement Supplied by the Douglas Fir Exploitation and Export Company, 



San Francisco. 

A— UNTREATED 



UNITED KINGDOM 

From Washington and Oregon 64,500,000 Board Feet 

From British Columbia 38,600,000 Board Feet 



Total 103,100,000 Board Feet 

Sizes and Lengths 

3 % 4,Hx 9—8' 6" Ties. 
85 % 5 xlO— 8' 6" Ties. 
3% 5 xl2— 8' 6" Ties. 

9% 6 xl2 — 6x14 — 6x16 Crossings, 9 to 30 feet. 
7 xl2 — 7x14 — 7x16, Crossings, 9 to 30 feet. 

100% 

WEST COAST SOUTH AMERICA 

From Washington and Oregon . 990,000 Board Feet 

Sizes and Lengths 

9 % 4x6—4' 6" Ties. 
18% 6x6—6' Ties. 
40 % 6x8—8' Ties. 
33% 6x8 and 7x9 Crossings, 10 to 18 feet. 

100% 



CHINA 

From Washington and Oregon .1,100,000 Board Feet 

Sizes and Lengths 

20 % 4Kx6— 9' Ties. 
35 % 5Kx7— 6' Ties. 
10%, 7 x9— 9' Ties. 
35 % 6x8 Crossings, 6 to 12 feet. 



100' 



DOUGLAS FIR RAILROAD TIES— Continued 

B— TREATED 

CHINA— TAKU BAR 

From Washington and Oregon 415,000 Board Feet 

Sizes and Lengths 

85 % 6x9—8' Ties. 

15 % 6x9 Crossings, 9 to 17 feet. 

100% 

INDIA 

From Washington and Oregon 3,611,000 Board Feet 

From British Columbia 3,800,000 Board Feet 

Total.-- 7,411,000 Board Feet 

SAN DOMINGO 

From Washington and Oregon 1,473,000 Board Feet 

Sizes and Lengths 

88 % 6x8—8' Ties. 

12 % 6x8 Crossings, 8}i to 15 feet. 

100% 



SUMMARY IN BOARD FEET 

A— UNTREATED B— TREATED 

United Kingdom 103,100,000 

West Coast South America 990,000 

China 1,100,000 415,000 

India 7,411,000 

San Domingo 1,473,000 

Totals 105,190,000 9,299,000 

TOTALS 

A— UNTREATED TIES AND CROSSINGS 105,190,000 BOARD FEET 

B— TREATED TIES AND CROSSINGS 9,299,000 BOARD FEET 

GRAND TOTAI 114,489,000 BOARD FEET 

Note: In British Countries, cross ties are called sleepers, and switch ties are termed crossings. 

CROSS-TIES PER MILE 
Center to Center Number of Ties 

18 inches 3,520 

21 inches 3,017 

24 inches 2,640 

27 inches "'■^*^ 

30 inches 2,112 



WEIGHT OF DOUGLAS FIR 

MERCHANTABLE AND COMMON GRADES 

1000 BOARD FEET EQUALS 3333 POUNDS 

To quickly ascertain the weight of "green" Douglas Fir; Add one cipher to the board feet and 
divide by 3. 

Example: Find the weight in pounds ot 672 board feet of green Douglas Fir. 

Process: 672x10 equals 6720, divided by 3 equals 2240 pounds. 

WEIGHT FOR EXPORT CARGO SHIPMENTS 

Lumber manufactured for export shipment during summer and early fall, say from July to 
October is invariably lighter in weight than that which is sawn during tlie winter and spring seasons, 
say from November to June. The length of time that lumber is cut prior to shipment has a govern- 
ing effect on the weight, as all lumber and especially small dimension stock cut during fine weather 
for 30 days or longer becomes partially seasoned and thus loses weight through exposure to the air. 

The heavy rain that occurs in the Douglas Fir region during the winter and spring months 
naturally increases the weight of lumber, for though it is piled solid before shipment, the water clings 
to the surface although it does not penetrate the lumber owing to its resistance to saturation. This 
is very noticeable as wet lumber is being loaded on board a vessel, for as the loads are elevated the 
water that clings between the boards or planks will drain off in great quantities. 

Experienced lumber exporters base the weight for cargo shipments as follows: 
SUMMER AND FALL LOADING 

To determine the deadweight of lumber in tons of 2240 pounds for summer and early fall ship- 
ment, multiply the board feet by 1.44 and point off the three right hand figures. 

Example: Find the deadweight in tons of four million (4,000,000) board feet of lumber at 1.44 
tons per 1000 board feet. 

Process: 4,000,000x1.44 equals 5,760,000, now point off the three right hand figures and you 
have 5.760, the weight in tons of 2240 pounds 

—10— 



WEIGHT OF DOUGLAS Fl R— Contin«.5d 

WINTER AND SPRING LOADING 

To determine the deadweight of lumber in tons of 2240 pounds for winter and spring shipment 
multiply the board feet by 1.5 and point off the three right hand figures. 

Example: Find the deadweight in tons of four million (4,000,000) board feet of lumber at 
1.5 tons per 1000 board feet. 

Process: 4,000,000x1.5 equals 6,000,000, now point off the three right hand figures and you 
have 6,000, the weight in tons of 2240 pounds. 

Note: The deadweight displacement of a vessel is invariably computed in long tons of 2240 
pounds. 

WEIGHT OF CLEAR DOUGLAS FIR 

Clear lumber is cut from the outside of the log in proximity to the sap wood consequently it 
contains more moisture and is closer grained than the merchantable and common grades that are 
manufactured from the heart lumber towards the center of the tree, which contains dryer wood and 
coarser grain. This explains the reason for clear lumber weighing more than the common grades, 

DECKING AND FLITCHES 

Rough clear ships' decking (deck plank) and cants for resawing purposes, which are usually known 
as flitches weigh 3500 pounds per thousand board feet. 

Decking that has been surfaced four sides weighs 3000 pounds per 1000 board feet. 

KILN DRIED LUMBER 

Rough green clear boards lose about 10 percent of their weight during process of kiln dry- 
ing and it is customary to compute the weight of rough dry stock at 3000 pounds per 1000 board feet 

KILN DRIED DRESSED STOCK 
WEIGHT PER 1000 BOARD FEET 

Pounds 

1x3—1x4—1x6 Flooring, Vertical or Slash Grain - -2000 

1 Kx3— 1 J<x4— 1 yix6 Flooring, Vertical or Slash Grain 2200 

Jix4 Ceiling . --- 900 

>^x4 Ceiling '. 1200 

%il4, Ceiling - 1400 

1x4 and 1x6 Ceiling - ..2000 

?^x6 Drop Siding and Rustic 1600 

1x4—1x6—1x8 Drop Siding and Rustic 2000 

1x4 to 1x12 Surfaced 2 or 4 Sides 2500 

1^x4 to l,iixl2 Surfaced 2 or 4 Sides 2700 

lKx4to l>^xl2 Surfaced 2 or 4 Sides 2700 

2x4 to 2x12 Surfaced 2 or 4 Sides 2700 

1 yi — 1 yi or 2 inch. Stepping 8 to 12 inches wide .2700 

METRIC WEIGHT 

The weight of Douglas Fir in kilograms and metric tons is given in the "Metric Section." 
WEIGHT OF DOUGLAS FIR LOGS OR PILING 

Rafted logs or piling on account of being partly submerged in salt or fresh water, or freshly 
felled in the early summer months, will naturally weigh more than those felled in winter, or shipped 
direct on cars from forest to destination. To compute the approximate weight in pounds of rafted 
logs or piling, take average diameter including bark, then ascertain board measure contents by 
referring to the Brereton Solid Log Table and multiply the amount by 3.5. 

For logs and piling shipped on cars multiply board measure contents by 3.4. 

WEIGHT OF CREOSOTED DOUGLAS FIR PILES, POLES AND TIES 

To compute weight in pounds of creosoted piles or poles, take average diameter, then ascer- 
tain board measure contents according to the Brereton Solid Log Table and multiply the amount 
by 3.5. 

Butt treated or butt and top treated telephone, telegraph or electric light poles weigh about 
3.4 pounds per board foot, exact contents. 

Creosoted ties (sleepers) or lumber of small dimensions weigh about 3.6 pounds per board 
foot. Creosoted timbers weigh about 3.5 pounds per board foot. 

POINTER FOR CHARTERER OR OWNERS OF VESSELS 
Taint From Creosote 

In making charters for vessels to carry creosoted piling or lumber, if possible arrange to carry 
this material on deck. If carried under deck it will taint perishable cargo in same compartment 
or perishable cargo carried on the return voyage. 

EFFECT OF CREOSOTE ON CARRYING CAPACITY 

The difference in weight between creosoted and untreated ties must also be taken into con- 
sideration as this affects the carrying capacity to a considerable extent; for instance, a steamer 
with a deadweight cargo carrying capacity of 5400 long tons that would ordinarily carry 3,620,000 
board feet of untreated fir ties would only carry 3,360,000 board feet of creosoted ties, a difference 
of 260,000 board feet. 

—11 — 



PULP WOOD 

PAPER MAKING DESCRIBED 

There are four general processes of reducing wood to a pulp condition, states the Forest Products 
Laboratory, Madison, Wis., in answer to frequent requests for general information on pulp and paper 
making. These are known as the ground wood, sulphite, sulphate and soda processes of pulping. 

The ground wood process of pulping is used mainly for the reduction of non-resinous, long- 
fibered woods, such as spruce and balsam. The barked wood in two-foot lengths is ground on a 
grindstone, the surface of which has been sharpened to produce a cutting action. The yield of pulp 
is approximately 90 per cent of the weight of the raw wood. The pulp is inferior in quality and is 
used only to mix with longer and stronger fibered stock, such as unbleached sulphite pulp, in the 
manufacturing of paper in which permanency is not required, as in newsprint, cheap catalogue, mag- 
azine and certain other papers. It is also used to a large extent in the manufacture of wall board. 

The sulphite process is used chiefly for the reduction of long-fibered, non-resinous, coniferous 
woods, such as spruce, balsam and hemlock, giving a yield of less than 45 per cent based on the weight 
of the original wood used. This pulp can be bleached to a high degree of white and is largely used 
both unbleached and bleached in the manufacture of books, newsprint, wrapping, bond and tissue 
papers. 

The sulphate or kraft process of pulping is used for the reduction of any long-fibered wood and 
yields approximately 45 per cent. This is an alkaline process and can be used for the reduction of 
both resinous and non-resinous woods, such as the pines, spruces, hemlocks, firs, etc. Kraft pulp 
is normally not bleached; but on account of its strength it is used for the manufacture of kraft wrap- 
ping paper and high test container board. 

The soda process is restricted in use to the short-flbered deciduous woods, such as aspen, cotton- 
wood, willow, gum woods, etc., yielding less than 45 per cent. The resulting pulp is invariably bleached 
to a high degree of white, and after admixture with a longer and stronger-fibered stock, such as spruce 
sulphite, is used for the manufacture of book, lithograph, envelope papers, etc. 

It is the opinion of the laboratory that under present conditions a balanced pulp and paper mill 
can not be erected at a cost of less than $45,000 or $50,000 per ton capacity oi finished paper per day. 
It is not feasible, except under abnormal conditions, to erect a pulp plant of less than 25 tons capacity 
requiring approximately 60 cords of wood a day. Before proceeding with the erection of a pulp and 
paper mill a competent engineer who has specialized in this field should make a very careful survey 
of the economic conditions, such as labor, markets, living conditions, cost of fuel and power, as such 
factors are of decided importance in determining the financial success of the enterprise. 

RESULTS OF PRACTICAL TESTS OF THE FOLLOWING WOODS FOR PULP PURPOSES 

Western Hemlock under favorable conditions will yield 1050 pounds of sulphite pulp per 
cord of wood, is easily bleached and easily pulped, of good strength and fair color, very similar 
to White Spruce; or 2160 pounds of mechanical pulp of good strength and fiber, but a little off 
color. 

Douglas Fir yields 850 pounds of sulphite pulp, difficult to bleach, hard to pulp, of fair strength 
and poor color, and with lew uses; or 1,170 pounds of sulphate pulp, working up into a good grade of 
kraft or wrapping paper, but not so strong as White Spruce, but is not suitable for mechanical pulp. 

Western White Pine is good for 1,080 pounds of sulphite pulp, hard to bleach, easily pulped, 
of good strength and color, and a good substitute for White Spruce; or 1,120 pounds of sulphate pulp; 
or 2,140 pounds of mechanical pulp, rather pitchy, but otherwise not much different from White 
Spruce. 

Western Yellow Pine makes 1,140 pounds of sulphite pulp, difTicult to bleach, of good strength 
and color, which might be substituted for White Spruce; or 1,420 pounds of sulphate pulp, of strong 
but coarse fibre, capable of being substituted for White Spruce pulp; or a very high yield of mechanical 
pulp, of very short fibre, very pitchy and only useful when mixed with better grades of wood having 
longer fibre. 

Englemann Spruce makes 990 pounds of sulphite pulp, easily bleached, a little hard to pulp; 
of excellent strength and color, and practically the same as White Spruce; or 1,000 pounds of sulphate 
pulp of good quality; or 2,100 pounds of mechanical pulp of good strength and fibre, almost equal to 
White Spruce. 

Balsam makes 970 pounds of sulphite pulp, easily bleached and pulped, of good strength and 
excellent color; can be substituted for White Spruce; or 1,010 pounds of high-grade kraft paper; or 
1,910 pounds of mechanical pulp, of good strength and color, which can be substituted for White 
Spruce. 

Larch makes 1,200 pounds of sulphite pulp per cord of wood, difficult to bleach and pulp, of 
poor strength and color, only useful for low grade wrapping paper; or 1,290 pounds of sulphate pulp, 
of good quality, for kraft fibre; or 2,100 pounds of mechanical pulp, of poor color, short fibre, fair 
strength, only useful when a medium quality of ground wood will serve the purpose, and is not eco- 
nomically profitable where other woods can be easily obtained. 

Jack Pine works up into 1,080 pounds of sulphite pulp, very difficult to bleach, not easily pulped 
fairly strong, of poor quality, pulp shivery and full of pitch, mechanical difQculties preventing the use 
of this pulp in running over a paper machine; or 1,150 pounds of sulphate pulp, strong fibre, making 
good wrapping paper, building paper, or paper board; or 2.1.30 pounds of mechanical pulp, gray, 
soft in texture, of good strength, pitchy, poor finish; can be used for medium grade ground woods. 

Cottonwood makes 1,035 pounds of sulphite pulp, easily bleached and pulped, very weak, of 
good color; or 1,0.30 pounds of soda sulphate pulp, soft texture, easily bleached, of the same uses as 
Aspen; or 1.080 pounds of mechanical pulp, short fibered. weak, good color; can be used as a filler with 
longer fibred stocks. 

Aspen makes 1,030 pounds of sulphite pulp, easily bleached and pulped, weak fibre, excellent 
color, can be used with longer fibred stocks for better grades of paper; or 1,080 pounds of soda sul- 
phate pulp, very soft, short fibre, easily bleached, when mixed with high-grade long fibre makes fine 
high-grade book, envelope and writing paper; or 2,170 pounds of mechanical pulp, very short fibre, 
poor strength, good color, used as a filler in good paper along with long fibred stock. 

What is true of Cottonwood and Aspen is also true of Basswood; its pulps require to be mixed 
with long fibred stock to give good strength. It makes excellent pulps and is easily treated. 

—12— 



PULP WOOD— Continued 

CONSUMPTION OF PULPWOOD IN CALIFORNIA, OREGON AND WASHINGTON 

DURING 1920 
The 1920 consumption of pulpwood in California, Oregon and Washington exceeded by 23,000 
cords, or 7.4 per cent, the greatest previous record, which was in 1919. Similarly the 1919 con- 
sumption of pulpwood exceeded by 18.6 per cent that of 1917, the previous record. The 1919 
production of pulpwood fell short of the 1917 production by nearly .3 per cent, while the 1920 pro- 
duction exceeded the 1917 record by 14 per cent. 

This statement is based upon the following complete figures published jointly by the bureau 
of the census for 1919 and the Forest Service, in co-operation with the American Paper & Pulp 
Association, for 1920: 

Pulpwood Woodpulp 

Number Consumed Produced 

Year of Mills (Cords) (Short Tons) 

1920 11 :!:U.i9:5 243,849 

1919 10 311,130 207,607 

1918 9 239,774 168,654 

1917 8 262,294 213,813 

1916 8 259,544 188,782 

The hemlock pulpwood consumed in 1920 exceeded by 72,000 cords, or 55 per cent, all other 
species combined. The detail of consumption by species and by processes follows: 

Cords 
Species Consumed 

Hemlock 203,234 

Spruce (domestic) 61,430 

While Fir 41,862 

Cottonwood 18,806 

All Others t 8.861 

Cords Pulp Produced 

Process Consumed (Short Tons) 

Sulphite 174.753 97,660 

Mechanical 134,601 135.657 

Soda 24,839 10,532 

t All other includes Douglas Fir imported spruce, slabs, etc. 

Effect of Age on Pulp Wood Trees 

In a recent test upon white fir trees 18 inches or less in diameter as compared with larger or older 
trees 40 inches in diameter, it was found that the older wood produced from 10 to 17 percent less 
mechanical pulp. The older wood also required more power in grinding but did not follow the usual 
rule that greater power requirements means stronger pulp. The young wood had the greater strength. 
The pulp from the young wood is also noticeably brighter. 

Suitability of Certain Woods for Sulphite Pulp 

In cooks made of noble fir, lodgepole pine, and western hemlock to determine their suitability 
for pulping by the sulphite process. Noble fir produced a pulp of reddish tinge and with a long, 
coarse fibre. Lodgepole pine pulp has a fibre that is very similar to the fibre in spruce pulp, light 
and fairly strong. Western hemlock produces a fibre with a reddish tinge, but somewhat longer than 
the fibre from eastern hemlock. 

Wood Required to Make Paper 

Hardy S. Ferguson, formerly chief engineer of the Great Northern Paper Co., for many years, 
but now a consulting engineer at 200 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y., gives the following figures as 
to the amount of wood required to make one ton of newspaper. 

He assumes that one cord of wood will yield one ton air-dry ground wood pulp; that two cords 
of wood will yield one ton air-dry sulphite pulp; that in the paper mill 2 per cent of the sulphite is 
wasted, as is the case with 8 per cent of the ground wood. 

Then he finds that with paper containing 25 per cent sulphite, one ton of paper requires 1.32 
cords; that with paper containing 22>^ per cent sulphite, one ton of paper requires 1.30 cords, and 
that with paper containing 20 per cent sulphite, one ton of paper requires 1.28 cords of wood. 

Information 

A very useful book describing the manufacture of pulp and other interesting information on this 
subject, entitled By-Products of the Lumber Industry, "Special Agents Series" No. 110, can 
be purchased by sending a money order for ten cents to the Superintendent of Documents, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

Modern Pulp and Paper Making; a practical treatise by G. S. Witham, Sr., Price $6.00, pub- 
lished by H. W. Wilson Co., 958 University Avenue, New York City. 

Information regarding suitable sites for pulp and paper mills in I5ritish Columbia can be ob- 
tained by communicating with the Chief Forester, Victoria, British Columbia. 

The Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin, will gladly furnish information 
relative to the pulp and paper industries in the United States. 

—13— 



PULP WOOD— Continued 

Alaska and British Columbia Pulp Wood 

In Southern Alaska and British Columbia there is an imnaense supply of pulp wood and good 
opportunity for utilizing the numerous water possibilities at mills right at the ocean's edge. 

The stands of suitable pulp wood timber are so dense that it is not unusual to find 100 to 150 
cords to the acre, so great is the quantity that the 400 mile strip of Southeastern Alaska, extending 
along the British Columbia seaboard, contains sufficient timber to furnish half of the newsprint paper 
in the United States. 

The stand of pulp wood is approximately two-thirds Western Hemlock and one-third Spruce. 

Western Hemlock and Spruce are the standard mechanical and sulphite pulp woods for the 
United States mills in the Pacific Northwest, the hemlock being consumed in greater amounts than 
any other single species. Hemlock forms 60 per cent of the merchantable stand of timber on the 
Tongass National Forest, Alaska. 

CORD MEASURE 

Firewood, small puip wood, and material cut into short sticks for excelsior, etc., is usually 
measured by the cord. A cord is 128 cubic feet of stacked wood. The wood is usually cut 
into 4 foot lengths, in which case a cord is a stack 4 feet high and wide, and 8 feet long. Sometimes, 
however, pulp wood is cut 5 feet long, and a stack of it 4 feet high, 5 feet wide and 8 feet long is con- 
sidered 1 cord. In this case the cord contains 160 cubic feet of stacked wood. Where firewood is 
cut in 5 foot lengths a cord is a stack 4 feet high and 6 >2 feet long, and contains 130 cubic feet of 
stacked wood. Where it is desirable to use shorter lengths for special purposes, the sticks are often 
cut 1 K. 2 or 3 feet long. A stack of such wood, 4 feet high and 8 feet long, is considered 1 cord, but 
the price is always made to conform to the shortness of the measure. 

A cord foot is one-eighth of a cord and equivalent to a stack of 4 foot wood 4 feet high and 1 
foot wide. Farmers frequently speak of a foot of cord wood, meaning a cord foot. By the expression 
"surface foot" is meant the number of square feet measured on the side of a stack. 

In some localities, particularly in New England, cord wood is measured by means of calipers. 
Instead of stacking the wood and computing the cords in the ordinary way, the average diameter of 
each log is determined with calipers and the number of cords obtained by consulting a table which 
gives the amount of wood in logs of different diameters and lengths. 

Relation Between Board Measure, Cubic Measure and Cord Measure 

In order to determine the number of feet in a standard cord of stacked wood (4 feet x 4 feet x 
8 feet), and also to ascertain the number of solid cubic feet of wood in a cord, the class in forest men- 
suration of the Montana Forest School has just completed a study on this phase of the subject. A 
number of 16-foot softwood logs (Douglas fir, western larch and western yellow pine), averaging 
about 12 inches in diameter at the small end, were first scaled with Scribner Decimal "C" Rule. The 
logs were next cut into 4-foot lengths and the number of cubic feet in each piece accurately determined. 
The 4-foot lengths were next split into the usually convenient cordwood stick and stacked into a pile 
4 feet high and 8 feet long. The following were the results obtained: 

A standard cord (128 cubic feet) of stacked wood (Douglas fir, western larch, western yellow 
pine) contains: 

517 board feet (Scribner Dec. "C" Scale). 

963 board feet (62.7 percent) of actual wood. 

80.25 cubic feet of actual wood. 

37.3 percent of a stacked cord is air space. 

A similar study carried out by the forestry students of the University of Wisconsin (1914), in 
the university oak woodlot near Madison, Wis., gave 73 cubic feet (57 percent) of actual wood per 
cord. This was nearly all red and black oak, and the 73 cubic feet represented the average for 23 
cords of wood, used by the university as fuel. — R. R. Fenska, acting dean, University of Montana, 
Missoula, Mont. 

It is generally agreed that the conifers pile closer in cordwood than do the hardwoods and this 
explains the difference in the two sets of university figures referred to in the foregoing. 

Metric Equivalent 

1 Stere (Cubic Meter) equals 0.2759 of a cord. 

1 Cord equals 3.624 Steres. 

Note: 1 Stere or cubic meter equals 35.314 cubic feet. 

Amount of Pulp Wood In a Cord 

A cord of wood ordinarily yields about one ton of mechanical pulp or about one-half ton of 
chemical pulp. 

Amount of Hemlock Bark for Tanning Purposes in a Cord 

Although the cord is used as a standard of measure for bark, it is usually sold by weight in order 
to avoid variation due to loose piling. 

Throughout the East 2,240 pounds are usually called a cord, although in some places 2,000 pounds 
are accepted. 

A long cord of 2,240 pounds equals about 77 cubic feet, a short cord of 2,000 pounds equals about 
66 K cubic feet. 

It is highly important to keep Hemlock bark intended for tanning purposes well protected from 
the rain, for it leaches out easily and is soon ruined. For the same reason bark from logs which have 
been towed or driven is of little value. 

Salt water ruins it entirely. 



CORD MEASURE— Continued 

SHINGLE BOLTS 

Bolts are measured by stacking, a pile four feet high by eight feet long being considered a cord, 
or, more often, bolts are simply counted and reduced to cords by dividing by a factor representing 
the average number of bolts in a cord. This factor varies somewhat with different cutters and in 
different sized timber, and is usually obtained by stacking a few cords of each cutter's bolts. Bolts 
will run between 16 and 40 to the cord, and average from 20 to 22. In the Puget Sound region, bolts 
for 16-inch shingles are cut from 52 to 54 inches long. A cord of bolts averaging about 20 bolts is 
considered equivalent to 700 ft., B. M., or the same number of shingles that can be cut from 500 ft., 
B. M. of timber. In Eastern Washington and Northern Idaho, where the timber is smaller, a cord 
usually contains from 35 to 40 bolts and is considered equivalent to 850 ft., B. M. In this region, all 
bolts are cut in 52-inch lengths. 

Relative Fuel Value of Cord Wood and Coal 

In heating value, one pound of good coal may be taken as the equivalent of two pounds of sea- 
soned wood, says the Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce. Allowing 80 solid cubic feet 
of wood to an average cord and assuming the sticks to be well seasoned, a cord of hickory or other 
heavy wood is equivalent in heat value to one ton of coal. For lighter woods, as cedar, poplar, spruce 
and white pine, two cords are equivalent to one ton of coal. 

Equal weights of dry non-resinous woods give off practically the same amount of heat in burn- 
ing — that is, a ton of dry Cottonwood will give off as much heat on burning as a ton of white oak 
Highly resinous woods, like some of the pines and firs, have an appreciably greater heating value per 
ton, because a pound of resin gives off twice as much heat during combustion as a pound of wood. 

When buying wood by the cord, it must be remembered that different species vary greatly in 
weight per cubic foot, so that a cord of hickory has considerable more fuel value than a cord of soft 
maple. A cord of seasoned wood contains more wood than a cord of green wood, because of the 
shrinkage which takes place in seasoning. 

The amount of moisture in firewood influences not only the vigor with which it burns, but the 
amount of heat actually given off. Therefore, to obtain a standard cord of wood of the greatest fuel 
value, thoroughly dry wood of the heaviest kind, straight in growth, cut into short lengths and with 
the largest diameters, should be selected. As a rule, the soft woods burn more readily than the hard 
woods and tfie lighter woods burn more readily than the heavier ones. 

DOUGLAS FIR PICKETS ROUGH 

The standard size, 1x3 — 4 feet and 4 feet 6 inches long, are tied in bundles of 10 pieces each; 
they are in great demand for the Australian market, and are used for fences, and occasionally are sawn 
into inch lath; they are also extensively utilized as staves for mutton-tallow barrels. 

Grade According to Export "H" List 

Pickets 1x3 in. — 4 ft. — 4 ft. 6 in. — 5 ft. Will allow variations in size of 3^ of an inch in thick- 
ness and % of an inch in width. Sap, pitch pockets, and two sound hard knots not over 1 inch in 
diameter allowed. 

Manufacture 

Strict attention should be paid to their manufacture, and it is essential that they be uniform in 
thickness They can be made from air or kiln dried stock and many mills rip 2x3 to 15/16 of an inch 
to make them. 

In most cases pickets are subject to rigid inspection, and it is useless to make them from any- 
thing but the best material. 

Discoloration 

Unless there are prospects of shipping pickets within a short time after they are manufactured, 
they should be piled on their edge in bundles, and crossed in alternate courses with an air space be- 
tween each bundle of about 4 inches. This prevents discoloration, and is the method employed by 
a number of mills who aim to ship their stock in a satisfactory condition. 

Measurement, Contents and Weight 
1000 pes. 1x3 — ^yi leet contain 1125 feet Board Measure, and average 4000 lbs. in weight. 
The above weight is for green stock; wtien seasoned lumber is used, due allowance must be made 
for difference in material. 

TO FIGURE CAPACITY OF FREIGHT CARS 

DOUGLAS FIR LUMBER 

To find the amount of Rough Green Lumber any car will carry, cut off a cipher from the 
marked capacity in pounds, add 10 per cent and multiply by 3; the resuLt will be the limit of feet 
Board Measure the car is allowed to carry. 

Example: What is the limit in feet Board Measure allowed a car of 80,000 pounds capacity i* 
8000 pounds 
800 10 per cent 

8800x3 equals 26,400 ft. Board Measure. — Answer. 
CEDAR SHINGLES 
To find approximate number of 16 inch Shingles that can be loaded in a box car. 
Ascertain cubical capacity of the car, and to the number of cubic feet add two ciphers;] the 
result will be the number of Shingles.j 

When loading Shingles or Lumber in furniture cars, precautions should be taken igainst" ex- 
ceeding the weight limit. 

—15— 



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TO COMPUTE SIZES NOT GIVEN IN THE BOARD MEASURE TABLE 

A great variety of sizes can be computed or checked by the aid of the foregoing table. 

If you wish to figure the contents of fractional lumber, plank, square or rectangular timbers 
the table can be used for that purpose. 



to the amount given in the table for a board of 



For lumber IK inches in thickness add 
corresponding width and length. 

For lumber IH inches in thickness you would add half the amount to the contents. 

For lumber 2 inches in thickness double the amount of contents. In other words when the 
thickness exceeds one inch multiply the board feet amounts given in the table by the thickness. 

EXAMPLES 
Fractional Sizes: Find the contents of 1 piece \yix\l — 20 feet long. 

By referring to the table you will find 1 piece 1x17 — 20 feet long, contains 28 feet and 4 inches, 
to this is added one-quarter (7 ft. 1 in.) which gives 35 feet 5 inches, the board feet contents of 
1 piece lyixll — 20 feet long. 

If the board were \yi inches in thickness you would add to the contents of 1x17, half the 
amount. 

Square Timbers: Find the contents of 1 piece 18x18 — 20 feet long. 

According to the table, 1 piece 1x18—20 contains 30 board feet, the amount multiplied by 
one side of the square (18) gives 540, the board feet contents. 

Rectangular Timbers: Find the contents of 1 piece 15x24 — 32 feet long. 
In this case you can multiply the contents of 1x15 — 32 (40 feet contents) by 24, or 1x24 — 32 
(64 feet contents) by 15, the result will be the same, namely 960 hoard feet contents. 

Totals: In the table the fractions are given in twelfths (small figures) making adding easier. 
Thus the following 1 inch lumber would be added: 

1 piece Ix 7 — 10 ft. equals 5 ft. 10 inches. 
1 piece 1x10 — 12 ft. equals 10 ft. inches. 
1 piece 1x16 — 12 ft. equals 16 ft. inches. 
1 piece 1x13 — 14 ft. equals 15 ft. 2 inches. 
1 piece 1x20 — 16 ft. equals 26 ft. 8 inches. 



Total equals 72 and 20/12 ft., or 73% Board Feet. 

To find the total contents of lumber thicker than 1 inch, proceed as if the lumber were 1 inch 
and multiply the total by the thickness. 

In the foregoing example, if it were 3 inch lumber the total would be multiplied by 3, or a 
total of 221 board feet. 




17— 



DOUGLAS FIR LATH 

The standard for California and West Coast of South America is 3^x1 K in. — 4 ft., tied 
In bundles of 100 pieces. 

The Australian standard is as follows: 
J^xl in. — 4 3-4 ft., tied in bundles of 90 pieces. 
J^xl>^ in. — 4K ft-, tied in bundles of 90 pieces. 
]/3X\l4 in — ^14 ft., tied in bundles of 90 pieces 

MEASUREMENTS, CONTENTS AND WEIGHTS 

MxlKin.— 1 fl.— 

1000 Pes. contain )66J^ ft. B. M. 

6000 Pes. equal 1000 ft. B. M. 

1000 Pes. Kiln Dried, weigh 500 lbs 

1000 Pes. Green, weigh 700 lbs. 
Hxl in.— 4 li f t.— 

1000 Pes. contain 125 ft. B. M. 

8000 Pes. equal 1000 ft. B. M. 

1000 Pes. Kiln Dried, weigh .375 lbs. 

1000 Pes Green, weigh 530 lbs 
Mxl}<in— 4Kft.— 

1000 Pes. contain i56>< ft. B. M. 

6400 Pes. equal 1000 ft B M. 

1000 Pes. Kiln Dried, weigh 470 lbs. 

1000 Pes. Green, weigh 660 lbs. 
HxlX in — 4>^ ft.— and 
^xl yi in —4 ft.— 

1000 Pes contain 187 Ji ft. B. M. 

5333 Pes. equal 1000 ft. B. M. 

1000 Pes. Kiln Dried, weigh 560 lbs. 

1000 Pes. Green, weigh 800 lbs. 

When lath are made Js of an inch in thickness, the contents and weight can be computed by 
adding to the measurements given in the preceding table 3-^ of the corresponding amount. 
1000 Pes. 5^x1 yi — 4ft. lath will cover 70 yards of surface. 

FREIGHT 

When figuring lath of any of the foregoing sizes and lengths for cargo freight, the prevailing 
custom formerly was to reckon six pieces as being the equivalent of one foot board measure, but the 
correct way is to figure them at actual contents. 

TO FIND THE NUMBER OF LATH REQUIRED FOR A ROOM 

Find the number of square yards in the walls and ceiling and by using the table given below, 
the result will be the number of lath necessary to cover the room. 
For 3^x1 — 4 ft., multiply the square yards by 22. 
For 3^x1 yi — 4 ft., multiply the square yards by 18. 
For 3^x1 yi — 4 ft., multiply the square yards by 16. 

NUMBER OF LATH REQUIRED TO COVER 100 SQUARE YARDS 

Lath 3^x1 — 4 ft., requires 2200 pieces per 100 square yards. 
Lath 3^x1 )4—'i ft., requires 1800 pieces per 100 square yards. 
Lath 3^x1 yz — 4 ft., requires 1600 pieces per 100 square yards. 

At 16 lath to the square yard, 1000 lath will cover 63 yards of surface, and 11 pounds of lath 
nails will nail them on. 

Note: For ordinary dwellings on the U. S. Pacific Coast and British Columbia the standard 
lath is 3^x1 K—1 ft., tied in bundles of 50 or 100 pieces. 

DOUGLAS FIR STAVES 

ACCORDING TO EXPORT "H" LIST 

No. 1 Staves 1x4 in. x 4 ft. Sawn full size clear. If seasoned will allow } s of an inch scant in 
width. 

No. 2 Staves 1x3 in. x 4 ft. Will allow variations in size of \i of an inch in thickness and % 
■of an inch in width. Sap and two sound hard knots not over '4 of an inch in diameter allowed. 

DOUGLAS FIR SHINGLES 

Douglas Fir Shingles are occasionally made and give excellent satisfaction when sawn from old 
growth logs of large diameter. 

Manufacturers of this product claim they should be sawn vertical grain and not over 6 inches 
in width. 

Like the Douglas Fir door they will come into general use, when they can be manufactured at 
a price which allows competition with Western Red Cedar. 

—18— 



Size 




Length 
30 feet 


2x 8 inches 




4x10 inches 




18 leet 


10x10 inches 




36 feet 


20x20 inches 


Operation 


60 feet 



BOARD MEASURE 

The unit of board measure is the board foot, one foot square and one inch in thiclc- 
ness, and the number of board feet in any given material that is being measured ac- 
cording to this standard, is obtained by dividing this standard volume of a board foot 
into the net standard volume of the material to be measured. This rule applies whether 
the material be one inch in thickness or some greater or less thickness. 

HOW TO FIGURE LUMBER 

The ordinary way of finding the contents of squared lumber is to multiply together the length 
in feet, the width and thickness in inches and divide the product by 12. 

Figuring lumber by the above rule is a slow process, and the following system is adopted by 
experts whose business makes rapid calculation essential to their success. 

Multiply together the thickness and width in inches, divide the product by 12 and multiply re- 
sult by the length; the answer is Board Measure contents. 

EXAMPLES 

A few examples will show the system for finding the contents of standard sizes in a few seconds, 
and many of them without a mouent's hesitation. 

Example: Find the Board Measure contents of the following sizes: 
Pes. Size Length B. M. 

1 2x 8 inches 30 feet 40 

1 4x10 inches 18 leet 60 

300 
2000 

2x8 equals 16 divided by 12 equals 16/12 or IJ^. When this is multiplied by the length the 
answer is 40 feet; in other words, add one-third to the length and you have the Board Measure contents. 

4x10 equals 40 divided by 12 equals '.i}^ or 10/3. In this instance a cipher is added to the length 
and when this is divided by three the result is 60 feet Board Measure contents. 

10x10 equals 100; this divided by 12 equals 8}4 or 100/12. It is easier to multiply by 100 and 
divide by 12 than to multiply by 8^^, therefore add two ciphers to the length and divide by 12; the 
result is 300 feet Board Measure contents. 

20x20 equals 400 divided by 12 equals 33)3' or 100/3. All that is necessary is to add two ciphers 
to the length and divide by 3; the result is 2000 feel Board Measure contents. 

After a short reflection on the above method, it will be apparent to everyone that when this 
system is used I have made good my statement that the contents of any ordinary stick of lumber can 
be_figured inside of a few seconds. 

The following standard sizes and multiples for same will serve as a basis for practice, and when 
memorized will benefit those who wish to become rapid in figuring lumber, and at the saHie time may 
prove a stepping stone to a belter position and successful career. 

STANDARDTSIZES AND MULTIPLES 

1 X 3 Divide lineal feel by 1. 

1 X 4 Divide lineal feet by 3. 

1x6 Divide lineal feet by 2. 

1x8 Multiply lineal feet by 2 and divide by 3. 

1 xlO Multiply lineal feet by 10 and divide by 12. 

1 xl2 Lineal feet and Board Measure the same. 
2x3 Divide lineal feet by 2. 

2x4 Multiply lineal feet by 2 and divide by 3. 

2x8 Add to lineal feet yi of amount. 

2 xlO Multiply lineal feet by 10 and divide by 6. 

2 xl2 Multiply lineal feet by 2. 

3x3 Multiply lineal feet by 3 and divide by 4. 

3x4 Lineal feet and Board Measure the same. 

3x6 Add to lineal feet 'A the amount. 

3x8 Multiply lineal feet by 2. 

3 xlO Multiply lineal feet by 10 and divide by 4. 

3 xl2 Multiply lineal feet by 3. 
4x4 Add to lineal feet J^a 01 amount. 
4x6 Multiply lineal feet by 2. 

4x8 Multiply lineal feet by 3 and subtract 14 lineal feet from amount. 

4 xlO Multiply lineal feet by 10 and divide by 3. 
4 xl2 Multiply lineal feet by 4. 

8x8 Multiply lineal feet by 5J^. 

10x10 Multiply lineal feet by 100 and divide by 12. 

12x12 Multiply lineal feet by 12. 

14x14 Multiply lineal feet by 16^- 

16x16 Multiply lineal feet by 211-^. 

18x18 Multiply lineal feet by 27. 

20x20 Multiply lineal feet by 100 and divide by 3. 

22x22 Multiply lineal feet by 401^^. 

21x24 Multiply lineal feet by 48. 

—19— 



HOW TO FIGURE LUMBER— Continued 

Another Method 

A handy method for computing Board Measure contents, preferred by a number of lumbermen, 
is as follows: 

For all 12 ft. lengths, multiply width by thickness. 

For all 14 ft. lengths, multiply width by thickness, and add 14. 

For all 16 ft. lengths, multiply width by thickness, and add H. 

For all 18 ft. lengths, multiply width by thickness, and add }4. 

For all 20 ft. lengths, multiply width by thickness, and add %. 

For all 22 ft. lengths, multiply width by thickness, and add %. 

For all 24 ft. lengths, multiply width by thickness, and double. 
Some objection may be taken to the use of % and ^, but often by transposition you can sub- 
stitute H, M< or lA, as in the following: 

Examples: 10 pes. 1x18 — 22 changed to 10 pes. 1x22 — 18. 
16 pes. 1x22—20 changed to 20 pes. 1x22—16. 

In the first example, instead of multiplying 10x18 and adding J^ to the result, multiply 10x22 and 
add H to the result, which will give 330 ft. Board Measure. In the second item, instead of multi- 
plying 16x22 and adding ?3, multiply 20x22 and add M. which gives 586?3 ft. Board Measure. 

The above system is very handy, when figureing lumber from 12 to 24 feet in length, and also 
where odd widths and thicknesses frequently occur. 

MULTIPLICATION 

In computing contents of lumber it is often necessary to multiply by the figures from 13 to 19. 
A simple process is to multiply by the unit of the multiplier, set down the product under, and one 
place to the right of, and then add to the multiplicand. 

Example: Multiply 238 by 15. 
238 
1190 

3570 Answer. 
To multiply any number by 101 to 109. 
Example: Multiply 24356 by 103. 

24356 
73068 



2508668 Answer. 
Multiply by the unit of the multiplier, placing the product two figures to the right i 
example. 

To multiply by 21-31-41-51-61-71-81-91. 

Set the product by the tens under the multiplicand in proper position and add, thus: 
Example: Multiply 76432 by 61. 
Operation : 

76432x61 
458592 



4662352 



If ciphers occur between the two digits of the multiplier, the same method can be used by placing 
the figures in the correct position, thus: 

Example: Multiply 76432 by 6001. 
Operation: 

76432x6001 
458592 



458668432 



FRACTIONAL SIZES 

To find the Board Measure contents of lumber IX and lyi inches in thickness, proceed as if the 
lumber were of one inch and to the amount obtained add one-quarter or one-half, as the case may be. 

To bring the lineal feet of fractional lumber to board measure when your time is limited, and 
you are not familiar with the correct multiple, multiply the lineal feet by the thickness, width and 
length and divide result by twelve. 

ADDITION OF FRACTIONS 

Find the sum of 3/8 and 5/13. 
39 plus 40 equals 79 
3/8 times 5/13 equals 104. Answer 79/104. 

Explanation: Multiply the denominator (8) of the qrst fraction by the numerator (5) of the 
second fraction, which gives 40. Next multiply the numerator (3) of the first fraction by the de- 
nominator (13) of the second fraction, which gives 39. Now unite these products (40 plus 39 equals 
79), which gives the numerator of the answer. The denominator of the answer is the product of the 
denominators (8 times 13 equals 104). 

—20— 



HOW TO FIGURE LUMBER— Continued 

MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS 

When both the whole numbers are the same, and the sum of the fractions is a unit. 
Examples: 

Multiply A,y2 by 4K- Answer 2Q%. 
Multiply 1% by 7^. Answer 56 15/64. 
Multiply 9^3 by T--i. Answer 90 2/9. 
Operation: 

4 times 4 plus 4 equals 20 plus l^ times yi equals 20><. 

7 times 7 plus 7 equals 56 plus ?8 times Vs equals 56 15/64. 

9 times 9 plus 9 equals 90 plus % times '^i equals 90 2/9. 

When the whole numbers are alike and the fractions are one-half, such as IJ^xlK. 2>^x2J^, 12K 
xl2>^, add one to one of the whole numbers, then multiply the whole numbers together and to the 
result add the multiplication of the halves, which always equals one-quarter. 

The following examples are self-explanatory: 
As Common Fractions: 

VA times IH' equals 1 times 2 plus }-i or 2% Answer. 

2>i times 2% equals 2 times 3 plus % or 6;^ Answer. 

3>^ times 3K equals 3 times 4 plus % or 12^ Answer. 

\2}A times 12>^ equals 12 times 13 plus yi or 156J< Answer. 

109K times 109>^ equals 109 times 110 plus ■< or 11990"< Answer. 

AS DECIMAL FRACTIONS 

1.5 times 1.5 equals 1 times 2 plus 25/100 or 2.25 

2.5 times 2.5 equals 2 times 3 plus 25/100 or 6.25 

3.5 times 3.5 equals 3 times 4 plus 25/100 or 12.25 
12.5 times 12.5 equals 12 times 13 plus 25/100 or 156.25 
109.5 times 109.5 equals 109 times 110 plus 25/100 or 11990.25 

MULTIPLICATION OF MIXED NUMBERS 

Multiply 4623 by 21^8. 
Operation: 

322)46^3 

42)21^8 



1020-20/24 

Explanation: Find the product of the whole numbers (966) and to the right put down the pro- 
duct of the numerators of the fractions (2 times 7 equals 14). Now multiply the numerator (7) of 
the lower fraction by the upper whole number (46). which gives 322. Write this on the left of the 
upper number. Now divide the product thus obtained by the denominator (8) of the lower fraction, 
which gives 40 and a remainder of 2. Write the 40 in the whole number column and the remainder 
(2) we multiply by the upper denominator (3), which gives a product of 6 and is written under 14 in 
the fraction column. 

Now multiply the lower whole number (21) by the numerator (2) of the upper fraction, which 
gives 42. Write it on the left. Now divide 42 by the denominator (3) of the upper fraction, which 
gives 14 and no remainder. Write a cipher in the fraction column. Now add the partial product 
and the product is complete. In cases where the partial products of the fractions amount to more 
than 1, carry the excess to the whole numbers. 

DIVISION OF MIXED NUMBERS 

Divide 46^^ by 7. 
Operation : 

7)465^ 

6 37/56 

Explanation: In cases where the divisor is a whole number, the foregoing example does away 
with the usual method of reducing dividend and divisor to the same denomination. 

Proceed as follows: 7 is contained 6 times in 46, with a remainder of 4. Write down 6 to pro- 
duce the fraction of the quotient we multiply the remainder (4) by the denominator (8), which gives 
32; to this is added the numerator (5) and we have the 37, the numerator of the quotient. 

The product of the divisor by the denominator is the denominator (56) of the answer. 

SHORT RULES 

3-Inch Plank: One-half the width multiplied by half the length, gives the Board Measure 
contents. 

12-foot Lengths: The Board Measure contents of any piece of lumber 12 feet long is equal 
to the thickness and width multiplied together. 

Lumber 6 inches in Thickness: Half the width multiplied by the length gives the Board 
Measure contents. 



-21 



HOW TO FIGURE LUMBER— Continued 

To find Board Measure contents of 4x8 in. multiply lineal feet by 2 and add one-third to the 
product. 

Example: How many feet board measure are there in a piece of 4x8-in. 30 feet long? 

Operation: 

30 
Multiplied by 2 

60 
}4 of 60 equals 20 

80 ft. B. M. Answer. 

To find Board Measure contents of 8x8 in. divide lineal feet by 2, add one cipher to the result 
and to this amount add one-third of the lineal feet. This system requires no mental effort in even 
lengths up to 26 feet long. 

Example: Find Board Measure contents of 1 piece 8x8 in. — 18 and 26 ft. long respectively. 

Operation: 

18 divided by 2 equals 9. 
18 divided by 3 equals 6. 
Place the 6 to the right of 9 and you have the answer, 96 ft. B. M. 
26 divided by 2 equals 13. 
26 divided by 3 equals 8%. 
Place the 8% to the right of 13 and you have the answer, 138?^ ft. B. M. 

To Covert Board Measure to Lineal Feet, simply reverse the multiple used to bring lineal 
feet to Board Measure; in other words, multiply Board feet by 12 and divide by thickness and width. 
Example: How many lineal feet are there in 1000 feet Board Measure of 2x8? 

Process : 

1000 
12 

2) 12000 

8) 6000 

750 lineal feet. Answer. 

Car orders frequently call for a specified amount of sizes containing special lengths. Before 
proceeding to load, it is necessary to find the number of pieces required. 

Find the number of pieces in the following order: 
1000 ft. B. M. 2x4—14. 
1000 ft. B. M. 2x4—16. 
1000 ft. B. M. 2x4—20. 
Bring the Board Measure to lineal feet as shown in previous example, then divide the length'into 
the lineal feet. The result will be the number of pieces. 
Process: 

1000 
12 

2) 12000 

4) 6000 

1500 lineal feet. 
The lineal feet given is now divided by the respective lengths and the following answer is ob- 
tained: 

107 Pes. 2x4—14 containing 998 ft. 8 in. B. M. 
94 Pes. 2x4 — 16 containing 1002 ft. 8 in. B. M. 
75 Pes. 2x4—20 containing 1000 ft. B. M. 



TO COMPUTE SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR TIMBERS 

This method of computing the Board Measure contents of square or rectangular timbers that 
exceed 12 inches one or both ways, is known to but very few, if any, lumbermen. It is a rapid way 
of figuring the majority of sizes, and on account of its simplicity the system is easily committed to 
memory. 

Rule: Multiply length by width, and to the result add one-twelfth of the thickness for each 
inch that exceeds twelve. 

Example: Find the Board Measure contents of a timber 13 in. x 17 in. — 48 feet long. 
Operation: 
48 multiplied by 17 equals 816 
816 divided by 12 equals 68 

884 Ans. in B. M. Contents. 

Explanation: Multiply the length (48 ft.) by the width (17 in.), which equals 816. Now as 
the thickness (13) exceeds 12 inches by one inch, consider this as one-twelfth, which is divided into 
816 and equals 68. This amount is added to the 816 and the result is 884 ft. Board Measure contents. 



—22— 



HOW TO FrCURE LUMBER—Continued 



The following multiples will be of assistance to those wh 
Board Measure contents of timbers by the preceding rule. 
12x13 Multiply length by 13. 

13x14 Multiply length by 14 and add 1/12 of result. 
14x14 Multiply length by 14 and add ^ of result. 
14x15 Multiply length by 15 and add }4 of result. 
15x15 Multiply length by 15 and add }i of result. 
15x16 Multiply length by 16 and add ^4 of result. 
16x16 Multiply length by 16 and add K of result. 
16x17 Multiply length by 17 and add 14 of result. 
16x18 Multiply length by 18 and add }i of result. 
18x18 Multiply length by 18 and add 'A of result. 
24x24 Multiply length by 24 and 2. 
26x26 Multiply length by 26 and 2%. 
28x28 Multiply length by 28 and 2^- 
30x30 Multiply length by 30 and 2}4. 
36x36 Multiply length by 36 and 3. 



h to practice this system of finding 



TAPERING LUMBER 
How to Figure Trapezoids, or Boards With Only Two Parallel Sides 
Find the Board Measure contents of a board one inch thick, whose parallel sides are 16 feet and 
20 feet in length and 8 inches wide. 



Add together the two parallel sides, and divide their sum by 2, multiply the result by the inches 
in width and divide by 12. The answer is 12 feet Board Measure contents. 

Find the Board Measure contents of a board one inch thick, 24 feet long whose parallel ends are 
10 inches and 18 inches respectively. 
Operation: 

Add both ends (10 and 18) and divide by 2, this give3 14, the averagfe width, now multiply 14 by the 
length 24 and divide the result by 12 which gives 28 the contents in board feet. 

HOW TO FIGURE THE FRUSTUM OF A PYRAMID, OR TAPERING TIMBER 

As it frequently occurs there is a difference of opinion as to the correct way of ascertaining the 
Board Measure contents of tapering timber, the following method is both simple and correct, and will 
enable anyone to figure the exact contents without diving into square root. 

Find the contents of a timber 40 feet high, 12x12 inches at the bottom and 6x6 inches at the'top. 




Square both ends separately, then multiply the top by the bottom side 
and multiply this by the height and in all cases divide by 36. 
Operation: 



jdd the sum together. 



12x12 
6x 6 
6x12 


144 bottom 
36 top 
72 top and bottom 




252 
40 ft. high 






36) 


10080 ( 280 ft. 

72 

288 
288 


B. 


M.- 



-23- 



HOW TO FIGURE LUMBER— Continued 

The common error that would be made in figuring a timber of this dimension would be to call 
it 9x9 the supposed size at the middle; the contents in that case would be 270 feet, or a difference of 
10 feet. This is an important item that should be taken into consideration when figuring on con- 
tracts or freight. 

I will now prove the method I used is correct by figuring a square limber on the same principal 
as a tapering stick. 

Find the Board Measure contents of a timber 12 inches square and 40 feet long. 
Operation: 



12x12 
12x12 
12x12 


144 bottom 
144 top 
144 top and 


bol 


llom 




432 
40 ft. long 








36) 


17280 (480 ft. 
144 


B. 


M. 


Contents. 



CONTENTS BY PROGRESSIVE ADDITION 

This rule is of great advantage when there is a range of odd and even lengths. 
Example 1 : Find the number of lineal feet in the following: 

Ft. Long Pieces Lin. Ft. 

10 480 

11 8 48 

12 6 40 

13 4 34 

14 7 30 

15 23 23 

48 655 

Explanation: First put down the pieces of the longest length (23 Pes.) to this, add the pieces 
of the next longest length (7 Pes.), which makes 30, put this down over the 23; now add to this the 
next number of pieces (4), which makes 34; add the next number (6), which makes 40; to this add the 
8, which makes 48. The last item, in this case 48, if correct, will correspond with the total number 
of pieces. 

This number (48) is multiplied by the shortest length, minus one, which in this case is ten. Now 
48 times 10 equals 480; add this amount to the figures already obtained and the grand total is the 
number of lineal feet (655), not board feet. 

When there are missing lengths repeat the number of pieces as shown by the following example: 

Example 2: 

Ft. Long Pieces Lin. Ft. 

12 924 

13 15 77 

14 62 

15 19 62 

16 43 

17 43 43 

77 1211 

Explanation: In the foregoing example there are no pieces 14 or 16 feet long, so the amounts 
are repeated when there is a blank length. As in Example No. 1, the total pieces are multiplied by 
the shortest length, minus one. In this instance the 77 pieces are multiplied by 12, which gives 924, 
and the total addition shows 1211, the lineal feet. 

FOR EVEN LENGTHS ONLY 

Find the number of lineal feet in the following: 

Ft. Long Pieces Lin. Ft. 

12 46 287 

14 54 241 

16 62 187 

18 58 125 
20 67 67 

287 907 

907 

2870 

4684 

Explanation: This system is the same as the preceding examples, with the exception that 
the addition (907) is repeated or doubled, and to this is added the number of pieces (287) multiplied 
by the next shortest even length (10). These items are now added together and the result shows 
the lineal feet (4684). 



CARGO SPECIFICATIONS 

As there does not seem to be any fixed rule for making up specifications in a uniform manner, 
reference to this subject will not be out of place. Some mills adopt the system of making all Do- 
mestic and Foreign Export Specifications out in feet Board Measure for each size and length, while 
others make out their specifications in lineal feet for each length and then add up their total and 
bring same to Board Measure. 

The latter system of making out the extensions in lineal feet should be universally adopted, as 
everyone who is familiar with this class of work knows that a specification with the extensions in 
lineal feet, and showing the totals in Board Measure, can be finished in a quarter the time of a speci- 
fication that shows the feet Board Measure for each length. 

Steam schooners often arrive at San Francisco before the cargo manifest reaches consignee; 
this inconvenience and delay could often be avoided by the time gained in making up specifications 
with the extensions in lineal feet instead of Board Measure. 

Foreign buyers, especially in the British trade, use the lineal measure more extensively than any 
other, and when they receive specifications in feet Board Measure they are put to the unnecessary 
inconvenience of converting them to lineal feet to correspond with their tables and price lists. 

SHORT METHODS OF FIGURING SPECIFICATIONS 

A very easy and short method of obtaining the Board Measure contents of each size and length, 
when required, is to halve the length and double the thickness. Simple as this rule seems, it is un- 
known to many experts. 

Example: Find the Board Measure contents of each length in the following size: 
Pieces Size Length B. M. 

Feet 

53 2x10 12 1060 

42 2x10 14 980 

36 2x10 16 960 

48 2x10 18 1440 

36 2x10 20 1200 

30 2x10 22 1100 

12 2x10 24 480 

257 7220 

In the above example, instead of saying twelve times fifty-three, halve the length and say six 
times fifty-three is three hundred and eighteen (318); now by doubling the thickness, we have the 
equal of 4x10 stead of 2x10; therefore, by adding a cipher to the 318 and dividing by 3, we have the 
Board Measure contents of the first length. The same rule applies to the remainder of lengths. 

When it is only necessary to find the total feet Board Measure in a size containing a range of 
lengths, halve the lengths or pieces, and multiply the total result by the multiple of double the thick- 
ness of the size. 

Example: Find the total feet Board Measure contained in the following: 

Pieces Size Length Contents 

224 3x6 16 1792 

112 3x6 18 1008 

568 3x6 20 5680 

45 3x6 22 495 

120 3x6 24 1440 

1069 10415 

3 

Feet B. M. 31245 

HOW TO DECREASE OR INCREASE ORDERS 

The method of decreasing or increasing orders will now be explained. 
Reduce the following order by 44,000 feet Board Measure: 

240,000 feet 12x12—40 to 60 

280,000 feet 14x14—40 to 60 

420,000 feet 16x16—40 to 60 

160,000 feet 18x18 — 40 to 60 

1,100,000 
The first step necessary is to find the required percentage to reduce order in proportion. This 
is done by adding two ciphers to the amount that the order is to be reduced by and dividing the 
result by the amount of order. In this case it is 4 per cent. Each item must now be reduced 
separately by the percentage obtained, as follows: 

Original Reduced 

Amt. of Decrease Order Order 

9,600 ft. or 4 % from 240,000 ft. leaves 230,400 
11,200 ft. or 4% from 280,000 ft. leaves 268,800 
16,800 ft. or 4 % from 420,000 ft. leaves 403,200 
6,400 ft. or 4% from 160,000 ft. leaves 153,600 

44,000 1,100,000 1,056,000 

II the above order of 1,100,000 feet had to be increased by 44,000 teet, 4% would be added 
to each item, and the total would show the amount of order when increased. 

—25— 



CARGO SPECIFICATIONS— Continued 

FIGURING PERCENTAGES 

Cargo orders for California usually call for stipulated percentages of Nos. 1 and 2 in the common 
grades and clear and select in the uppers. 

During progress of loading, it is essential to keep posted on the proportion of the percentage 
so as to avoid over-running or falling short on a grade. 

Presume an order calls for 800,000 feet Nos. 1 and 2 Common, 25 % No. 2 allowed, and in 
figuring up to see how your percentage is, you find your order stands thus: 

306,600 ft. No. 1 
113,400 ft. No. 2 



420,000 ft. Total on board. 
The following is the way to find your percentage: 

Cut off the two right hand figures in your total (420,000) and divide the remaining amount 
(4200) into the Nos. 1 and 2 respectively. If your answer is correct your combined percentages 
will add to 100. 

Operation: 

No. 1 Common No. 2 Common 

4200)113400(27% 
8400 

29400 
29400 



Amount of Percentage 

306,600 No. 1 or 73 % of 420,000 
113,400 No. 2 or 27 % of 420,000 



420,000 Total 100 % 
As your No. 2 in this instance exceeds the 25 % allowed, notify the proper authorities of the 
fact, so that arrangements can be made to bring grade up to the required percentage. 

THE PETROGRAD STANDARD 

AN INCONVENIENT AND OUT-OF-DATE UNIT OF MEASUREMENT THAT SHOULD 

BE ABOLISHED 

A Metric Standard for Timber 

Metric measurement being in general use in Sweden, it is a surprise that shippers of wood 
goods from that country should perpetuate the use of the Petrograd standard hundred, a clumsy 
unit of computation which by the simple addition of less than 1 per cent could be converted into 
a metric standard. The advantages to the international timber trade of adopting a standard 
measurement of 2,000 board feet can scarcely be over-estimated, and not the least of these ad- 
vantages is the simplification of clerical work. Amongst other advantages are that contracts 
with Continental buyers would be easier understood; and we are sure that the reform would be 
welcomed in all countries in which a decimal currency obtains. Spruce and pitch pine lumber 
shippers also, whom custom has caused to adopt the Petrograd standard for export to Europe, 
would find an advantage in the assimilation of invoices to their own methods of reckoning by 
the 1.000 ft. board measure. How and when the Petrograd standard hundred came into general 
use is involved in obscurity. In 1840 and up to about 1850 invoices for Norway and Gothenburg 
shipments were made out in the local standards in use at the various ports. These standards all 
differed from one another, each being based on the customary local standard deal. Somewhere 
about 1860 the Petrograd standard appears to have come into general use. This date coincides 
with the development of the sawn timber trade from the Gulf of Bothnia ports, where the Petro- 
grad standard appears to have been generally adopted, and its use gradually spread to the other 
Scandinavian wood shipping ports; but why it supplanted the other standards is a matter of sur- 
prise, as it does not appear to offer any advantages. The Petrograd standard deal was 12 ft. by 
1>^ in. by 11 in. — a dimension which would not be called a deal at the present day is the basis of 
the Petrograd standard; 120 pieces — a long hundred — equalling 165 cubic feet. It is difficult 
to conceive of a more awkward or inconvenient unit of measurement. To reduce this standard, 
after multiplying feet by inches, length by thickness and breadth, it is necessary to divide suc- 
cessively by 3, 6, 11 and 120. Could anything more complicated be conceived? The great saving 
in clerical work in timber offices that the metrical standard would effect must appeal to every 
one engaged in the trade at home and abroad, but to start the reform it needs to be initiated by 
the leading Baltic exporting country, which appears to have unwisely adopted such an archaic 
and out-of-date unit of measurement — "The Timber Trades Journal," London, England. 



—26— 



THE PETROGRAD STANDARD 

The "Petrograd Standard" is used in Great Britain, almost to the entire exclusion of all other 
standards. 

The wholesale trade as a rule sells boards, battens, deals, planks, etc., by the Standard. 

The Standard (Petrograd) deal contains 1 piece 3x11 — 6 feet and 120 pieces of this dimension 
make one Standard. 

COMPOSITION OF STANDARDS 

Pes. Size Length B. M. Cu. Ft. 

Inches Feet Contents 

Petrograd. ...120 IKxU 12 1980 165 

Irish or London 120 3x9 12 3240 270 

Christiana -.120 1^x9 11 1237^ 103^ 

Drammen.. ..120 2Kx 6>^ 9 1462>i 121^ 

Quebec 100 2^x11 12 2750 229J^ 

The Drontheim Standard varies for different kinds oi lumber. It eootaius: 
2376 feet B. M. Sawn Deals. 
2160 feet B. M. of Square Timber. 
1728 feet B. M. of Round Timber. 
The Wyburg Standard contains: 

2160 feet B. M. of Sawn Deals. 
19632^ feet B. M. of Square Timber. 
1560 feet B. M. of Round Timber. 
100 Petrograd Standard Deals equal 60 Quebec Deals. 
The Riga "Last" contains 960 feet B. M. of Sawn Deals or Square Timber. 
A Cubic Fathom of Lathwood is 6 ft. x 6 ft. and contains 216 cubic feet or 2592 feet B. M. 
A Gross Hundred (120 pieces) makes a Standard Hundred. 

FIGURING OF STANDARDS 

Bring the following specification to Standard Measurement: 
24 Pieces Kx5>2 — 24 
20 Pieces 1 x6 — 16 
20 Pieces 1 xl2 — 20 
40 Pieces 2 xlO — 24 
10 Pieces 2 xl2 — 22 
Reduce each item as follows by multiplying the number of Pieces and all their dimensions 
together. 

24xffx5>^x24 20x1x6—16 20x1x12—20 

a — — 

18 20 20 

5}i 6 12 

99 120 240 

24 16 20 

2376 1920 4800 

When the products are obtained, then add together the total number of inches as shown in 
the specification below, which totals: 

24 Pieces J<x5K— 24 2376 inches. 

20 Pieces 1 x6 — 16 1920 inches. 

20 Pieces 1 xl2 — 20 4800 inches. 

40 Pieces 2 xlO — 24 19200 inches. 

10 Pieces 2 xl2 — 22 5280 inches. 

33576 inches. 

Always divide the total (in this instance 33576) by the following figures, which are standing 
divisors and never vary; thus: 
11)33576 

18)3052 

30)169 10/18 

4)5.19 10/18 Std. Quarters Deals Parts 

1.1.19 10/18 equals, 1 1 19 10/18 

String and Caliper Measure 

In Great Britain Timbers are sold on Caliper and String Measure. Round logs are sold by 
String Measure. Hewn and Square Timbers are sold by both String and Caliper Measure. 

In String Measure, the string is passed around the log or waney timber; the circumference 
is thus obtained; the string is doubled twice, then placed on a rule which shows the quarter girth 
or the average side of the log measured. 

In Caliper Measure no allowance is made for wane. 

—27— 



FREIGHT MEASUREMENT OF TIMBER AS USED IN ENGLAND 

A Petrograd Standard Hundred contains 120 pieces of 12 feet by 1>^ inches by 11 inches 
etjuals 165 cubic feet, or 1,980 superficial feet of 1 inch. 

Deals, battens, scantings, rough boards, and sawn pitch pine timber, pay freight per Petrograd 
Standard Hundred. 

Planed boards pay freight on actual measure when dressed, not by the specification of nomi- 
nal sizes from which they are manufactured. 

Squared timber pays freight per load of 50 cubic feet. Queen's caliper measure delivered. 
Mahogany and cedar from Cuba pay freight per load of 50 cubic feet. Queens caliper measure 
the captain paying the measuring charge. 

Most furniture woods pay freight per ton weight delivered. 
1 shipping ton equals 42 cubic feet of Timbers. 

100 Superficial feet of planking equal 1 square. 
120 Deals equal 1 hundred. 

50 Cubic feet of squared timbers equal 1 load. 
40 Cubic feet of unhewn tinnbers equal 1 load. 
600 Superficial feet of inch boards equal 1 load. 
216 Cubic feet of lathwood equal 1 fathom. 

108 Cubic feet of wood equal 1 stack. 

128 Cubic feet of wood equal 1 cord. 

Timber at 50 Cubic Feet to One Ton 
Pitchpine, Spruce, Whitewood. Redwood, Elm, Walnut, Maple, Pine, Baltic, Dantzig, Riga 
and Memel Fir Timber are computed as weighing 50 cubic feet to the ton. 

Timber at 40 Cubic Feet to One Ton 
Birch, Oak, Ash, Elm, Mahogany, Teak, Beech, Green Heart, Hickory and Round Timber 
generally are computed as weighing 40 cubic feet to the ton. 

Crowntrees 

The term "Crowntrees" refers to small sleepers (ties). They are made from trees of about 
7 inches in diameter, split in the middle, so that 2 sleepers can be obtained from each piece. 

They are exported from Sweden to England and France, where they are used as ties in the 
coal mines. The dimensions are: Length 3 to 6 feet, thickness 2% to 3K inches, width about 
7 inches. 

Rickers 

Rickers are small poles having a top diameter of IK to 3 inches, and a diameter at the middle 
of Syi to 6}4 inches, lengths 16 to 50 feet, they are shipped with the bark on from Sweden to Great 
Britain, where they are principally used for scaffolding in various industrial plants. 

Definition of Sleepers and Crossings 

In Great Britain railroad ties are termed "sleepers" and switch ties are called "crossings." 
The standard size of Douglas Fir railroad ties (sleepers) exported to Great Britain is 5"x 

10" — 8' 6", and the standard size itl switch ties (crossings) is 6"xl2", they advance by six inches 

in length from 9 to 24 ft. 

Douglas Fir ties are shipped "green" and cresoted on arrival in Great Britain. 

OCTAGON SPARS 

As the custom is now becoming general to order Octagon Spars, both Sawn and Hewn, the 
information on this subject will be appreciated by those who make a specialty of this line. 

An Octagon can be made out of a Square timber by the following rule: 

From diagonal deduct one side of timber, and that will give one side of the Octagon. 

To find the length of the side of the triangle to be taken off the corner of the timber at right 
angles to the diagonal, deduct half the diagonal from one side of the timber. 

One side of a square timber divided by .707 gives the diagonal. 

Example: Find the length of one side of an Octagon that can be made out of a timber 35 
inches square. 

Diagonal of 35x35 equals 49.50 inches. 
One side of 35x35 equals 35.00 inches. 

One side of Octagon equals 14.50 inches. 
Example: What is the length of the side of a triangle to be taken off the corner of a limber 
35 inches square to make an Octagon? 
Process: 

2)49.50 Diagonal 

24.75 Half the Diagonal. 
35.00 Inches one side of timber. 
24.75 Inches, half the Diagonal. 

10.25 Inches length of one side of triangle. 

To find one side of an Octagon inscribed in a circle, multiply diameter by .38265. 

To find area of an Octagon multiply square of side by 4.82843. 

When one side of a square is given, to find one side of an Octagon, that can be made out of 
it — multiply one side of square by .41421. 

When one side of an Octagon is given, to find the diameter of the circumscribed circle, 
multiply one side of the Octagon by 2.613. 

—28— 



TO COMPUTE BOARD FEET CONTENTS OF AN OCTAGON 

To compute the board feet contents of an octagon multiply the square of one side of the Oc- 
tagon by 4.82843; then multiply the result by the length and divide by 12. 

Example: Find the board feet contents of an Octagon, one side of which is 4 inches and 
the length 60 feet. 

Process: 

4.82843 decimal term 
Multiplied by 16 the square of 4 

77.25488 
Multiplied by 60 the length 

Divided by 12)4635.29280 



386.2744 Board Feet Contents. 

ANOTHER METHOD 

To compute the board feet contents of an Octagon manufactured out of a square timber. 

First find the contents of the square timber in the usual way. then square one side of the 
Octagon; multiply it by the length and divide by 12; subtract this amount from the contents of 
the square timber and the result will give the board feet contents of the Octagon. 

Example: Find the board feet contents of an Octagon the side of which is 14J.{ inches, made 
of a timber 35 inches square and 60 feet long. 
Process: 

3.5" x35" —60 ft. equals 6125 Board Feet. 
14Kxl4K— 60 ft. equals 1051>i Board Feet. 



Contents of the Octagon 5073 J4 Board Feet. 
Note: The exact side of a square from which an Octagon of 14>^ inches could be made, would 
be 35.0065 inches. In the foregoing example the figures past the decimal point, namely .0064 
are discarded as being unnecessary for practical purposes. 

TO COMPUTE THE AREA OF A REGULAR POLYGON 

When length of a side only is given. 

Rule: Multiply square of the side by multiplier opposite to term of polygon in the following 
table: 

No. of 

Sides Polygon Multiplier 

3 Trigon .43301 

4 Tetragon 1. 

5 Pentagon 1.72048 

6 Hexagon 2.59808 

7 Heptagon 3.63391 

8 Octagon 4.82843 

9 Nonogon 6.18182 

10 Decagon 7.69421 

11 Undecagon 9.36564 

12 Dodecagon 11.19615 

TO COMPUTE THE BOARD FEET CONTENTS OF A REGULAR POLYGON 

Rule: Multiply square of the side by multiplier opposite to the term of polygon in the 
foregoing table; then multiply the result by the length and divide by 12. 

Example: Find the board measure contents of a Nonagon (9 equal sides) one side of which 
is 6 inches and the length is 30 feet. 
Process: 

6.18182 decimal term 
Multiplied by 36 the square of 6 inches 



222.54552 
Multiplied by 30 the length 



Divided by 12)6676.36560 



556.36380 Board Feet Contents. 
TO COMPUTE CONTENTS OF A TAPERING OCTAGON OR FRUSTUM OF A PYRAMID 

Rule: To the sums of the areas of the two ends of the tapering octagon or frustum add the 
square root of their product. Multiply the sum by the height and take one-third of the product. 
Example: Find the cubic contents of a frustum of a pyramid whose height is 15 feet. The 
area of one end is 18 square feet and the other 98 square feet. 
Operation: 18 plus 98 equals 116 (area of the two ends). 

98 times 18 equals 1764 square root of 1764 equals 42. 

116 plus 42 equals 158. 15 (height) times 158 equals 2370, which divided by 
3 gives 790 cubic feet. 
Remark: This rule also applies to frustums of cones. 

—29— 



USEFUL TABLE 


FOR MAKING OCTAGONS OUT OF SQUARE TIMBER 


Square 




One Side 


One Side 


Square 




One Side 


One Side 


Timber 


Diagonal 


of Octagon 


of Corner 


Timber 


Diagonal 


of Octagon 


of Corner 


First 


Second 


Third 


Fourth 


First 


Second 


Third 


Fourth 


Column 


Column 


Column 


Column 


Column 


Column 


Column 


Column 


6x 6 


8.48 


2.48 


1.76 


22x22 


31.12 


9.12 


6.44 


7x 7 


9.90 


2.90 


2.05 


23x23 


32.53 


9.53 


6.73 


8x 8 


11.31 


3.31 


2.35 


24x24 


33.95 


9.95 


7.02 


9i 9 


12.73 


3.73 


2.63 


25x25 


35.36 


10.36 


7.32 


10x10 


14.14 


4.14 


2.93 


26x26 


36.78 


10.78 


7.61 


11x11 


15.56 


4.56 


3.22 


27x27 


38.19 


11.19 


7.90 


12x12 


16.97 


4.97 


3.51 


28x28 


39.60 


11.60 


8.20 


13x13 


18.39 


5.39 


3.81 


29x29 


41.02 


12.02 


8.49 


14x14 


19.80 


5.80 


4.10 


30x30 


42.43 


12.43 


8.78 


15x15 


21.22 


6.22 


4.39 


31x31 


43.85 


12.85 


9.07 


16x16 


22.63 


6.63 


4.69 


32x32 


45.26 


13.26 


9.37 


17x17 


24.05 


7.05 


4.97 


33x33 


46.68 


13.36 


9.66 


18x18 


25.46 


7.46 


5.27 


34x34 


48.09 


14.09 


9.95 


19x19 


26.87 


7.87 


5.56 


35x35 


49.50 


14.50 


10.25 


20x20 


28.29 


8.29 


5.85 


36x36 


50.90 


14.92 


10.54 


21x21 


29.70 


8.70 


6.15 











EXPLANATION OF OCTAGON TABLE 

First Column shows the size of the timber to be made into an Octagon. 

Second Column shows the diagonal or the length of a line joining the opposite angles of the 
timber. 

Third Column shows the length of one side of the Octagon that 
in First Column. 

Fourth Column shows the length of one 
timber at right angles to the diagonal to 



be made from the timber 



side of the triangle to be cut off each corner of the 
ke the Octagon. 




3 5, I '71 C 



U 



The above diagram illustrates the system used in determining the contents of an Octagon. 
Note that one side of the square (35) deducted from the diagonal (49K) gives one side of the Octagon, 
and that the side of the small inner square equals one side of the Octagon. You will also observe 
that the area of the small square or combined areas of the four sections of the small square is the 
equivalent to the total area of the four corners taken off the large square to make the Octagon. 

—30— 



TO COMPUTE AVERAGES 

WIDTHS— THICKNESS— LENGTHS 
The following proforma specifications is used as an example in computing the 
above averages. 

PROFORMA SPECIFICATION 

Lengths 16 18 20 Pieces Lineal Ft. Board Ft . 

Sizes 

2x12 2 2 2 6 108 216 
2x14 2 2 2 6 108 252 
2x16 2 2 2 6 108 288 

Total for sizes 2 inches thicit 18 324 756 

4x12 2 2 2 6 108 432 
4x14 2 2 2 6 108 504 
4x16 2 2 2 6 108 576 

Total for sizes 4 inches thicit 18 324 1512 

6x12 2 2 2 6 108 648 
6x14 2 2 2 6 108 756 
6x16 2 2 2 6 108 864 

Total for sizes 6 inches thicit 18 324 2268 
Grand total of specification 54 972 4536 
Total of each length 18 18 18 

THE AVERAGES FOR THE ABOVE SPECIFICATION ARE AS FOLLOWS 

Average width 14 inches 

Average thictiness according to pieces 4 inches 

Average thickness according to board feet 4?^ inches 

Average length 18 feet 

TO COMPUTE AVERAGE WIDTHS 
Rule: Multiply the total pieces ot each width separately, then add totals separately, and 
divide total of pieces into total of widths, the result will be the average width. 

Example: Find the average width by using the proforma specification as an example. 
Process: 

6 pieces 2x12 
6 pieces 4x12 
6 pieces 6x12 

18 pieces multiplied by 12, the width, equals 216 

6 pieces 2x14 
6 pieces 4x14 
6 pieces 6x14 

18 pieces multiplied by 14, the width, equals 252 

6 pieces 2x16 
6 pieces 4x16 
6 pieces 6x16 

18 pieces multiplied by 16, the width, equals 288 

54 pieces divided into the total widths, 756 

equals 14 inches, the average width. 

TO COMPUTE AVERAGE THICKNESS 
According to Board Feet Contents 
Rule: Multiply the board feet contents of each thickness by the thickness, then add totals 
together, and divide the total board feet, into the total result of the board feet multiplied by the 
thickness. 

Example: The proforma specification is used in this example. 
Process: 

Board Feet of each Thickness Total 
756 multiplied by 2 equals 1,512 
1512 multiplied by 4 equals 6,048 
2268 multiplied by 6 equals 13,608 

4536 divided into total of 21,168 

equals 4% inches, the average thickness according to board feet 

contents. 



-31- 



TO COMPUTE AVERAGE THICKNESS 

According to Pieces 

Rule: Multiply the total lineal feet of each thickness by the thickness, then add totals 
together, and divide the total lineal feet into the total result of the lineal feet multiplied by the 
thickness. 

Example: The proforma specification is used in this example. 
Process: 
Lineal Feet of 

Each Thickness Thickness Total 

324 multiplied by 2 equals 648 
324 multiplied by 4 equals 1,296 
324 multiplied by 6 equals 1,944 

972 divided into total of 3,888 
equals 4, the average inches in thickness according 
to pieces. 

TO COMPUTE AN AVERAGE RANGE OF LENGTHS 

When an order of various widths and thicknesses calls for an average length, use the fol- 
lowing system to compute it. 

Rule: Add together the total pieces of each length, and multiply the pieces by their respective 
lengths; then add separately the pieces and lengths and divide the grand total of pieces into the 
grand total of lengths. The result will be the average length. 

Example: The proforma specification is used in this example. 

Process: 

18 pieces multiplied by 16 ft. (the length) equals 288 lineal feet 
18 pieces multiplied by 18 ft. (the length) equals 324 lineal feet 
18 pieces multiplied by 20 ft. (the length) equals 360 lineal feet 

54 pieces divided into the total lineal feet 972 
gives 18 feet, the average length. 

Note: When the total pieces and the total lineal feet is known, the total pieces divided into 
the total lineal feet gives the average length. 

Note: When making contracts or specifications calling for a range of sizes and widths, it 
is advisable to insert the average length, width and thickness. When an average width is stipu- 
lated, buyers frequently omit the average thickness. This omission may seriously effect the 
proper execution of the order, as a mill company that is falling down on the average width could 
saw an excessive amount of wide widths on the minimum thickness, thus filling the specifica- 
tion according to contract and clearing themselves but often putting the buyer up against it. 

TO COMPUTE AVERAGE ON BALANCE OF ORDER 

Assume that you have sawn or delivered 7.56 board feet of sizes 2 inches in thickness, on an 
order totalling 4536 board feet, that the average thickness required on the order is 4 inches, and 
that you wish to know the average thickness necessary to correctly fill the balance of the order. 

Rule: Multiply the amount of order (4536) by the required average (4) then multiply the 
amount sawn (756) by the thickness (2) now subtract the board feet and units of averages separ- 
ately and divide the board feet result (3780) into the remaining result of the units of the average 
(16632) which gives 4.4 inches. 

Example.: The proforma specification is used in this example. 
Process: 

4536 multiplied by 4, the required average, equals 18,144 units 
756 multiplied by 2, the present average, equals 1,512 units 

3780 divided into balance of units 16,632 units 

equals 4.4, the average thickness in inches required to fill the balance of order. 

Proof 

Amount sawn 756 ft. x 2 equals 1,512 units 

Amount of shortage 3780 ft. x 4.4 equals 16,632 units 

Amount of order 4536 ft. divided into 18,144 units 
equals 4 inches, the thickness required on original order. 

HARDWOOD AND SOFTWOOD TERMS 

The terms hardwoods and softwoods or conifers are not exactly correct designations for the two 
large classes of woods: for so-called softwoods are harder than some so-called hardwoods, and some 
so-called conifers do not bear cones. Other designations, such as porous and nonporous woods, 
woods from deciduous and woods from evergreen trees, woods from broad-leaved trees and woods 
from trees with needle or scale-like leaves, are also inexact because exceptions are found in both 
classes. The botanical terms angiosperms (meaning seeds inclosed in an ovary) for hardwoods, 
including palmlike trees, and gymnosperms (meaning seeds not inclosed in an ovary) for soft- 
woods or conifers are correct but are not in common usage. 

—32— 



DIFFERENTIAL TABLE 



Table :showing difference in board feet between actual contents of logs, 40 feet in 
length, 12 to 40 inches in diameter, and the Pacific Coast Log Scale's; also their respect- 
ive allowances for slabs and saw kerf. 



12-in. 

Diam 

Actual Contents 589 

Scribner Scale 196 

Spaulding Scale 192 

British Columbia Scale 210 



Allowance 

for Slabs 

and Saw 

Kerf. 

393 
397 
379 



14.in. 
Diam 

757 
286 
286 
297 



Allowance 

for Slabs 

and Saw 

Kerf. 

471 
471 
460 



Allowance 

for Slabs 

16-ln. and Saw 

Diam. Kerf. 

945 

396 549 
402 543 
400 545 



Allowance 



18-in. and Saw 

Diam. Kerf. 

Actual Contents 1155 

Scribner Scale 534 621 

Spaulding Scale 540 615 

British Columbia Scale 518 637 



20-ii 



ind Saw 22-in. and Saw 



Kerf. 



Dial 

1385 

700 685 

690 695 

652 733 



Diam. 
1636 
836 
852 



800 
784 
836 



Allowance 



Allowance 



24-in. 

Diam. 

Actual Contents 1909 

Scribner Scale 1010 

Spaulding Scale 1030 

British Columbia Scale 964 



and Saw 
Kerf. 



879 
945 



Kerf. 



26-in. 

Diam. 

2202 

1250 952 

1220 982 

1145 1057 



Allowance 

for Slabs 

28-in. and Saw 

Diam. Kerf. 

2516 

1456 1060 

1422 1094 

1337 1179 



Allowance 
for Slabs 

30-in. and Saw 32-in 

Diam. Kerf. Diam 

Actual Contents 2851 3207 

Scribner Scale 1642 1209 1840 

Spaulding Scale 1640 1211 1870 

British Columbia Scale 1546 1305 1771 



Allowance 

for Slabs 

and Saw 

Kerf. 

1367 
1337 
1436 



Allowance 

for Slabs 

34-in. and Saw 

Diam. Kerf. 

3584 

2000 1584 

2112 1472 

2011 1573 



Allowance 
for Slabs 
36-in. and Saw 
Diam. Kerf. 

Actual Contents 3982 

Scribner Scale 2304 1678 

Spaulding Scale 2376 1606 

British Columbia Scale 2266 1716 



Allowance 
for Slabs 
38-in. and Saw 
Diam. Kerf. 

4401 

2670 1731 

2660 1741 

2536 1865 



Allowance 

for Slabs 

40-in. and Saw 

Diam. Kerf. 

4841 

3010 1831 

2962 1879 

2822 2019 



TAPER OF DOUGLAS FIR LOGS 

The foregoing table is computed on the assumption that the 40-foot logs used as 
an example have an increase in taper of 6 inches, which is a fair average for this length 
of log. 

To gauge the correct actual contents of a log, it is necessary to take the mean 
diameter, not the diameter at the small end, which is the usual method of scaling Doug- 
las Fir logs; therefore to arrive at the actual contents given in the table, an increase of 
three inches over the diameter at the small end is allowed to give the correct mean 
diameter upon which the actual contents given in this table are based. 



-.33 



BOARD MEASUREMENT OF LOGS 

Board Measure is designed primarily for the measurement of sawed lumber. The unit is the 
board foot, which is a board 1 inch thick and 1 foot square, so that with inch boards the content 
in board measure is the same as the number of square feet of surface; with lumber of other thick- 
nesses the content is expressed in terms of inch boards. 

For a number of years board measure has been used as a unit of volume for logs. When so 
applied the measure does not show the entire content of the log, but the quantity of lumber which, 
it is estimated, may be manufactured from it. The number of board feet in any given log is de- 
terniined from a table that shows the estimated number which can be taken out from logs of dif- 
ferent diameters and lengths. Such a table is called a log scale or log rule, and is compiled by re- 
ducing the dimensions of perfect logs of different sizes, to allow for waste in manufacture, and then 
calculating the number of inch boards which remain. 

The amount of lumber which can be cut from logs of a given size is not uniform, because the 
factors which determine the amount of waste vary under different circumstances, such as the thick- 
ness of the saw, the thickness of the boards, the width of the smallest board which may be utilized, 
the skill of the sawyer, the efficiency of the machinery, the defects in the log, the amount of taper, 
and the shrinkage. This lack of uniformity has led to wide differences of opinion as to how log 
rules should be constructed. There have been many attempts to devise a log rule which can be 
used as a standard, but none of them will meet all conditions. The rules in existence have been 
so unsatisfactory that constant attempts have been made to improve upon them. As a result 
there are now actually in use in the United States 40 or 50 different log rules, whose results differ 
in some cases as much as 120 per cent for 20-inch to .'SO-inch logs, and 600 per cent for 6-inch logs. 
Some of these are constructed from mathematical formulae; some by preparing diagrams that 
represent the top of a log and then determining the amount of waste in sawdust and slabs; some 
are based on actual averages of logs cut at the mill; while stQl others are the result of making cor- 
rections in an existing rule to meet special local conditions. 

The large number of log rules, the difference in their values, and the variation in the methods 
of their application have led to much confusion and inconvenience. Efforts to reach an agreement 
among lumbermen on a single standard log rule have failed so far. A number of States have 
given official sanction to specific rules, but this has only added to the confusion, because the States 
have not chosen the same rule, so there are six different state log rules, and, in addition, three 
different official log rules in Canada. It is probable that a standard method of measuring logs 
will not be worked out satisfactorily until a single unit of volume, like the cubic or board foot, 
is adopted for the measurement of logs. — U. S. Forest Service Bulletin 36. 

The Brereton Solid Log Table shows the exact or solid contents in board feet of logs or round 
timbers, which will be found invaluable in a large number of instances as enumerated in the fol- 
lowing pages, and also for comparison with the Pacific Coast and other numerous log scales now 
in use. 

It is only a question of time when both buyer and seller will recognize the absolute fairness 
and benefit to be derived from making sales on the exact contents of a log, as the variation in 
quality can then be adjusted by the variation in price. 

It is unreasonable to measure pulp wood logs in terms of manufactured lumber, as the entire 
log is used in making pulp. Therefore a solid njeasure is more appropriate than the usual log 
scale making allowance for slab and saw kerf. 



ADVANTAGES AND USES OF THE BRERETON SOLID LOG TABLE SHOWING EXACT 
BOARD MEASURE CONTENTS OF LOGS 

Situations arise where it is essential to arrive at a close estimate for freight purposes of the 
exact or solid contents of logs or piling which are often shipped by vessel to Foreign or Domestic 
ports or when it is necessary to compute their weight prior to shipping by rail, with a view of 
ordering cars that will stand the strain of heavy and long logs, spars or timbers. 

It is also indispensable for ship's officers and stevedores to know the contents and weight 
of large logs and spars to enable them to judge as to the advisability of adjusting or doubling up 
their gear to avoid smashing derricks and winches or otherwise breaking down machinery. 



POUNDS PER DEADWEIGHT TON 

When computing deadweight of lumber, coal, or general cargo carried by British vessels, 
customary to use the long ton of 2240 pounds. 



-34- 



BRERETON SOLID LOG TABLE 
ACTUAL CONTENTS OF LOGS OR ROUND TIMBERS IN BOARD FEET 



Length 


Average Diameter in Inches 


in Feet 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


16 

18 .- 

20 

22 _. 

24 

26 

28 

30 -- 

32 

34 

36 

38 

40 

42 

44 

46 

48 

50 

52 

54 

56 

58 

60 


38 
42 
47 
52 
57 
61 
66 
71 
75 
80 
85 
90 
94 
99 
104 
108 
113 
118 
123 
127 
132 
137 
141 


51 
58 
64 
71 
77 
83 
90 
96 
103 
109 
115 
122 
128 
135 
141 
148 
154 
160 
167 
173 
180 
186 
192 


67 
75 
84 
92 
101 
109 
117 
126 
134 
142 
151 
159 
168 
176 
184 
193 
201 
209 
218 
226 
235 
242 
251 


85 
95 
106 
117 
127 
138 
148 
159 
170 
180 
191 
201 
212 
223 
233 
244 
254 
265 
276 
286 
297 
307 
318 


105 
118 
131 
144 
157 
170 
183 
196 
209 
223 
236 
249 
262 
275 
288 
301 
314 
327 
340 
353 
367 
380 
393 


127 
143 
158 
174 
190 
206 
222 
238 
253 
269 
285 
301 
317 
333 
348 
364 
380 
396 
412 
428 
443 
459 
475 


151 
170 
188 
207 
226 
245 
264 
283 
302 
320 
339 
358 
377 
396 
415 
434 
452 
471 
490 
509 
528 
547 
565 


177 
199 
221 
243 
265 
288 
310 
332 
354 
376 
398 
420 
442 
465 
487 
509 
531 
553 
575 
597 
619 
642 
664 


205 
231 
257 
282 
308 
334 
359 
385 
411 
436 
462 
487 
513 
539 
564 
590 
616 
641 
667 
693 
718 
744 
770 


236 
265 
295 
324 
353 
383 
412 
442 
471 
501 
530 
560 
589 
619 
648 
677 
707 
736 
766 
795 
825 
854 
884 


268 
302 
335 
369 
402 
436 
469 
503 
536 
570 
603 
637 
670 
704 
737 
771 
804 
838 
871 
905 
938 
972 
1005 


Length 


Average Diameter in Inches 


in Feet 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

32 

34 

36 

38 

40 

42 

44 

46 

48 

50 

52 

54 

56 

58 

60 


303 
340 
378 
416 
454 
492 
530 
567 
605 
643 
681 
719 
757 
794 
832 
870 
908 
964 
984 
1021 
1059 
1097 
1135 


339 
382 
424 
467 
509 
551 
594 
636 
679 
721 
763 
806 
848 
891 
933 
975 
1018 
1060 
1103 
1145 
1188 
1230 
1272 


378 
425 
473 
520 
567 
614 
662 
709 
756 
803 
851 
898 
945 
992 
1040 
1087 
1134 
1181 
1229 
1276 
1323 
1370 
1418 


419 
471 
524 
576 
628 
681 
733 
785 
838 
890 
942 
995 
1047 
1100 
1152 
1204 
1257 
1309 
1361 
1414 
1466 
1518 
1571 


462 
520 
577 
635 
693 
750 
808 
866 
924 
981 
1039 
1097 
1155 
1212 
1270 
1328 
1385 
1443 
1501 
1559 
1616 
1674 
1732 


507 
570 
634 
697 
760 
824 
887 
950 
1014 
1077 
1140 
1204 
1267 
1330 
1394 
1457 
1521 
1584 
1647 
1711 
1774 
1837 
1901 


554 
623 
692 
762 
831 
900 
969 
1039 
1108 
1177 
1246 
1316 
1385 
1454 
1523 
1593 
1662 
1731 
1800 
1870 
1939 
2008 
2077 


603 
679 
754 
829 
905 
980 
1056 
1131 
1206 
1282 
1357 
1433 
1508 
1583 
1659 
1734 
1810 
1885 
1960 
2036 
2111 
2187 
2262 


655 
736 
818 
900 
982 
1064 
1145 
1227 
1309 
1391 
1473 
1554 
1636 
1718 
1800 
1882 
1964 
2045 
2127 
2209 
2291 
2373 
2454 


708 
796 
885 
973 
1062 
1150 
1239 
1327 
1416 
1504 
1593 
1681 
1770 
1858 
1947 
2035 
2124 
2212 
2301 
2389 
2478 
2566 
2655 


763 
859 
954 
1050 
1145 
1241 
1336 
1431 
1527 
1622 
1718 
1813 
1909 
2004 
2099 
2195 
2290 
2386 
2481 
2577 
2672 
2767 
2863 



-33- 



BRERETON SOLID LOG TABLE— Continued 

ACTUAL CONTENTS OF LOGS OR ROUND TIMBERS IN BOARD FEET 











Average Diameter 


in Inches 








Length 
























in Feet 


























28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 


37 


38 


16 


821 


881 


942 


1006 


1072 


1140 


1211 


1283 


1357 


1434 


1512 


18 


924 


991 


1060 


1132 


1206 


1283 


1362 


1443 


1527 


1613 


1701 


20 


1026 


1101 


1178 


1258 


1340 


1426 


1513 


1604 


1696 


1792 


1890 


22 


1129 


1211 


1296 


1384 


1474 


1568 


1665 


1764 


1866 


1971 


2079 


24 


1232 


1321 


1414 


1510 


1608 


1711 


1816 


1924 


2036 


2150 


2268 


26 


1334 


1431 


1532 


1635 


1743 


1853 


1967 


2085 


2205 


2330 


2457 


28 


1437 


1541 


1649 


1761 


1877 


1996 


2118 


2245 


2375 


2509 


2646 


30 


1539 


1651 


1767 


1887 


2011 


2138 


2270 


2405 


2545 


2688 


2835 


32 


1642 


1761 


1885 


2013 


2145 


2281 


2421 


2566 


2714 


2867 


3024 


34 


1745 


1871 


2003 


2139 


2279 


2423 


2572 


2726 


2884 


3046 


3213 


36 


1847 


1982 


2121 


2264 


2413 


2566 


2724 


2886 


3054 


3226 


3402 


38 


1950 


2092 


2238 


2390 


2547 


2708 


2875 


3047 


3223 


3405 


3591 


40 


2053 


2202 


2356 


2516 


2681 


2851 


3026 


3207 


3393 


3584 


3780 


42 


2155 


2312 


2474 


2642 


2815 


2994 


3178 


3367 


3563 


3763 


3969 


44 


2258 


2422 


2592 


2767 


2949 


3136 


3329 


3528 


3732 


3942 


4158 


46 


2360 


2532 


2710 


2893 


3083 


3279 


3480 


3688 


3902 


4122 


4347 


48 


2463 


2642 


2827 


3019 


3217 


3421 


3632 


3848 


4072 


4301 


4536 


50 


2566 


2752 


2945 


3145 


3351 


3564 


3783 


4009 


4241 


4480 


4725 


52 


. 2668 


2862 


3063 


3271 


3485 


3706 


3934 


4139 


4411 


4659 


4915 


54 


2771 


2972 


3181 


3396 


3619 


3849 


4086 


4330 


4580 


4838 


5104 


56 


2874 


3082 


3299 


3522 


3753 


3991 


4237 


4490 


4750 


5018 


5293 


58 


2976 


3193 


3416 


3648 


3887 


4134 


4388 


4650 


4920 


5197 


5482 


60 


3079 


3303 


3534 


3774 


4021 


4277 


4540 


4811 


5089 


5376 


5671 












Average 


Diame 


ter in 1 


nches 








Length 
























in Feet 




























39 


40 


41 


42 


43 


44 


45 


46 


47 


48 


16 


1593 
1792 
1991 
2190 
2389 
2588 
2787 
2986 
3186 
3385 
3584 
3783 


1676 
1885 
2094 
2304 
2513 
2723 
2932 
3142 
3351 
3560 
3770 
3979 


1760 
1980 
2200 
2420 
2641 
2861 
3081 
3301 
3521 
3741 
3961 
4181 


1847 
2078 
2309 
2540 
2771 
3002 
3233 
3464 
3695 
3925 
4156 
4387 


1936 
2178 
2420 
2662 
2904 
3146 
3388 
3631 
3873 
4115 
4357 
4599 


2027 
2281 
2534 
2788 
3041 
3294 
3548 
3801 
4055 
4308 
4562 
4815 


2121 
2386 
2651 
2916 
3181 
3446 
3711 
3976 
4241 
4506 
4771 
5036 


2216 
2493 

2770 
3047 
3324 
3601 
3878 
4155 
4432 
4709 
4986 
5263 


2313 
2602 
2892 
3181 
3470 
3759 
4048 
4337 
4627 
4916 
5204 
5494 


2413 


18 


2714 


20 


3016 


22 


3318 


24 


3619 


26 


3921 


28 


4222 


30 


4524 


32 


4825 


34 


5127 


36 


5429 


38 




5730 


40 




3982 
4181 
4380 
4579 
4778 
4977 
5177 
5376 
5575 
5774 
5973 


4189 
4398 
4608 
4817 
5027 
5236 
5445 
5655 
5864 
6074 
6283 


4401 
4621 
4841 
5061 
5281 
5501 
5721 
5941 
6161 
6381 
6601 


4618 
4849 
5080 
5311 
5542 
5773 
6004 
6235 
6465 
6696 
6927 


4841 
5083 
5325 
5567 
5809 
6051 
6293 
6535 
6777 
7019 
7261 


5068 
5322 
5575 
5829 
6082 
6336 
6589 
6842 
7096 
7349 
7603 


5301 
5567 
5832 
6097 
6362 
6627 
6892 
7157 
7422 
7687 
7952 


5540 
5817 
6094 
6371 
6648 
6925 
7202 
7479 
7756 
8033 
8310 


5783 
6072 
6361 
6651 
6940 
7229 
7518 
7807 
8096 
8386 
8675 


6032 


42 


6333 


44 


6635 


46 


6937 


48 


7238 


50 


7540 


52 


7841 


54 


8143 


56 - -- 


8445 


58 


8746 


60 


9048 







-36- 



TABLE SHOWING BOARD FEET CONTENTS FOR ONE LINEAL FOOT 

OF ROUND TIMBER OR LOGS FROM ONE TO ONE 

HUNDRED INCHES IN DIAMETER 

This Table can be used for computing the actual or solid Board Feet Contents of 
Props, Poles, Piling, Logs or Round Timbers, from One to One Hundred Inches in 
Diameter by multiplying the length in feet by the amount given opposite the diameter 
required. 



Diam- 


Board Feet 


Diam- 


Board Feet 


Diam- 


Board Feet 


Diam- 


Board Feet 


eter in 


Contents 


eter in 


Contents 


eter in 


Contents 


eter in 


Contents 


Inches 


fori Lin. Ft. 


Inches 


for 1 Lin. Ft. 


Inches 


for 1 Lin. Ft. 


Inches 


fori Lin. Ft. 


1 


.06545 


26 


44.24420 


51 


170.23545 


76 


378.03920 


2 


.26180 


27 


47.71305 


52 


176.97680 


77 


388.05305 


3 


.58905 


28 


51.31280 


53 


183.84905 


78 


398.19780 


4 


1.04720 


29 


55.04345 


54 


190.85220 


79 


408.47345 


5 


1.63625 


30 


58.90500 


55 


197.98625 


80 


418.88000 


6 


2.35620 


31 


62.89745 


56 


205.25120 


81 


429.41745 


7 


3.20705 


32 


67.02080 


57 


212.64705 


82 


440.08580 


8 


4.18880 


33 


71.27505 


58 


220.17380 


83 


450.88505 


9 


5.30145 


34 


75.66020 


59 


227.83145 


84 


461.81520 


10 


6.54500 


35 


80.17625 


60 


235.62000 


85 


472.87625 


11 


7.91945 


36 


84.82320 


61 


243.53945 


86 


484.06820 


12 


9.42480 


37 


89.60105 


62 


251.58980 


87 


495.39105 


13 


11.06105 


38 


94.50980 


63 


259.77105 


88 


506.84480 


14 


12.82820 


39 


99.54945 


64 


268.08320 


89 


518.42945 


15 


14.72625 


40 


104.72000 


65 


276.52625 


90 


530.14500 


16 


16.75520 


41 


110.02145 


66 


285.10020 


91 


541.99145 


17 


18.91505 


42 


115.45380 


67 


293.80505 


92 


553.96880 


18 


21.20580 


43 


121.01705 


68 


302.64080 


93 


566.07705 


19 


23.62745 


44 


126.71120 


69 


311.60745 


94 


578.31620 


20 


26.18000 


45 


132.53625 


70 


320.70500 


95 


590.68625 


21 


28.86345 


46 


138.49220 


71 


329.93345 


96 


603.18720 


22 


31.67780 


47 


14-?. 57905 


72 


339.29280 


S7 


615.81905 


23 


34.62305 


48 


150.7S680 


73 


348.78305 


98 


628.58180 


24 


37.69920 


49 


157.14545 


74 


358.40420 


99 


641.47545 


25 


40.90625 


50 


163.62500 


75 


368.15625 


100 


654.50000 



U. S. SHIPPING BOARD RULE 

This rule is used for determining the contents of logs for freight purposes and is computed 
as follows: 

Rule: Square the mean diameter of the log in inches, multiply this by the length in inches, 
and divide by 1728. The result is the cubic feet upon which freight is charged. 

Example: Find the cubic feet for freight purposes of a log 40 inches average diameter and 
50 feet in length. 

Process: 40x40 equals 1600 multiplied by 600, the length (50 ft. x 12) in inches, equals 
960,000 which is divided by 1728 and gives 555>^ cubic feet or the equivalent of 6666 board feet. 

Note: As the actual contents of a log 40 inches average diameter and 50 feet long is 5236 
board feet, it means that the shipper would be paying extra freight on 1430 board feet or 27 per 
cent more than the actual contents of the log. The amount in excess of the actual contents is evi- 
dently added to make up for space apparently lost in stowage, but even this allowance is excessive 
and deviates from the correct system of measurement, as a number of logs will stow in less space 
than the square of their diameter. 

CORRECT METHOD FOR DETERMINING FREIGHT ON LOGS 

Freight on logs should be paid on actual contents. When logs have not been barked, the 
mean diameter should be taken outside of the bark. The mean diameter is determined by ad- 
ding the end diameters together and dividing the result by two. The "Brereton Solid Log 
Table" gives the actual contents of logs from six to forty eight inches in diameter and from 16 
to 60 feet in length. 

The actual contents of logs that exceed the diameter given in the table can be ascertained 
by referring to the rule, for computing the contents of a log on page 40. 

UNFAIR FREIGHT MEASUREMENTS 

It is just as unfair to the shipper to be assessed freight on the contents of a log figured on the 
square of the mean diameter, according to the Shipping Board Rule, as it is that the shipowners 
or operators should only receive payment based on the log rules in general use, which allow from 
30 to 60 per cent of the actual contents of a log for saw kerf and slabs. 

The allowance made for saw kerf and slabs by the leading log scales of the Pacific Coast is 
shown in the differential table on page 33. 



-37- 



TABLE SHOWING DIAMETER OF A LOG NECESSARY TO MAKE A 
SQUARE TIMBER 



Diameter Size of 
of log Timber 
14K 10x10 

16 11x11 

17 12x12 

18K - -13x13 

20 14x14 

21)4 15x15 

23 16x16 

24K--- 17x17 

25K 18x18 

27 -._ 19x19 

28K 20x20 

30 — - 21x21 

31}4- 22x22 

33 23x23 



Diameter Size of 

of log Timber 

34 ...24x24 

35J^ 25x25 

37 26x26 

38M - - 27x27 

40 28x28 

41K 29x29 

42K 30x30 

44 31x31 

45K 32x32 

47 33x33 

48M 34x34 

49K 35x35 

50K 36x36 

54 38x38 



THE 

INSCRIBED 

SQUARE 



To find the diameter of a log to make a square timber, divide one side of square by .707, or 
for practical purposes add a cipher to one side of square and divide by 7. 

To find the largest size square timber that can be made out of a log, multiply diameter by 
7 and divide by 10. 

Example: What is the diameter of a log that will make a timber 21 inches square? 
Process: 

21 
10 

7)210 

30 inches diameter. Answer. 
What size timber can be made out of a log 40 inches in diameter? 



28 inches square. Answer. 
A NEW METHOD OF TAPER SAWING 

From time to time the question of sawing parallel to the grain of a log is brought up. There 
are various methods for accomplishing this, and these methods were brought into considerable 
prominenee during the war. A new method of sawing with the grain has been invented by C. 
W. Aue, sawyer, Snoqualmie Falls, Wash. Regarding this invention, which is patented, the Four 
L Bulletin said in part: 

There is nothing new in the idea of cutting tapered logs parallel with the bark. As a rule, 
however, the bias lay of the log is achieved by means of placing blocks ahead of one or more of the 
set blocks. Mr. Aue cut the shafting between the setter's seat and the head block and installed 
a clutch coupling which the setter can operate with his foot and move the head block forwardfor 
backward one, two, three or four inches without affecting the others. The idea makes the oper- 
ation of sawing a tapered log both more accurate and more speedy. 

In addition, Mr. Aue suggests these advantages: The amount of taper is limited only to the 
length of the skid — one inch, two inches, three inches, four inches and up in multiples of these, 
as desired. The dogging of the log is simplified as it is always against the head block. If a 
change of taper is desired at any time there is no slack to contend with between the block and the 
log. It is inexpensive to install and very simple in operation. 

—38— 



HOW TO SAW TIMBERS 

When it is necessary to make two sound timbers out of a large log, splitting through the 
heart should always be avoided, and if the following system is adopted better timbers will be pro- 
duced, and the danger of exposing heart shakes will be greatly minimized. 

Presume it is necessary to make two 12x12 timbers out of a log 32 inches in diameter. Square 
up a 12x28>i (the }4 inch allows for two cuts % inch Kerf), then cut the first timber, and if free 
from heart shakes, turn cant over and saw off 4 inches and you will then have the second timber 
on the carriage. If after the first cut, shakey heart or other defects are exposed, without turning 
cant make another cut 4 inches, which leaves a 12x12 on the carriage, and a glance will show 
whether it is suitable or not for required order. 




Diagram Illustrating Correct Method of Making Two Timbers Out of a Log 

THE NINETEEN-INCH STANDARD LOG RULE 

One of the standards in most common use is the so-called nineteen-inch standard or " Market," 
of which the unit is a log 13 feet long and 19 inches in diameter at the small end inside the bark 

Such a log is called a "Market." Logs of other diameters are compared with this standard 
in proportion to their length, and in proportion also as to the squares of their diameters. In 
other words, the number of markets in a log of 20-inch diameter and 12 foot long would be 
12x20x20, divided by 13x19x19. 

This log rule is most commonly used in the Adirondack mountains of New York and is some- 
times called the Glens Falls Standard rule. 

Standard measure is commonly, though incorrectly, translated into board measure by mul- 
tiplying the volume of a given log in standards by a constant. In the case of the Nineteen-Inch 
Standard rule it is assumed that one standard is equivalent to 200 board feet, and the number of 
standards in a lot of logs, multiplied by 200, gives the approximate board feet contents. 

Rule for determining the contents of the 19 inch standard log. 

Multiply the square of the diameter by the length and divide by 13x19x19. 



THE ROPP RULE 

For logs 12 inches and over in diameter. 

Rule: From the square of the diameter (in inches) subtract 60, multiply the remainder by 



half of the length (in feet) and point off the right hand figure. 
Example: Find the number of board feet in a log 30 inche 
Process: 

30x30 equals 900 
Subtract 60 



in diameter and 40 



long. 



840 
Half of length 20 



1680.0 Answer 1680 Board Feet. 



-39- 



TO COMPUTE CONTENTS OF A LOG, ROUND TAPERING TIMBER 
OR FRUSTUM OF A CONE 

To compute the board feet contents of a log, round tapering timber or frustum of a cone. 

Rule: Add together squares of the diameters of the smaller and larger ends and product 
of the two diameters; multiply their sum respectively by .7854, and this product by length (height) ; 
then divide result by 12 and 3. 




Example: Find the board feet contents of a log 38 inches diameter at the small end, and 44 
inches diameter at the large end, 40 feet in length. 
Process: 

(Small diam) 38 x 38 equals 



(Large diam) 44 x 44 equals 
(Both diam's) 38 x 44 equals 



1444 
1936 
1672 



Sum of diameters by 



Multiplied by 



Divided by 



20208 
25260 
40416 
35364 

3967.8408 
40 

12)158713.6320 

3) 13226.1360 



4408.7120 Board Feet, Contents. 

The exact mean diameter of the log in the foregoing example is 41.1 inches, not 41 inches as 
would be generally supposed. The difference is due to the converging slant height of a tapering 
body which gives a very slight increase in mean diameter over the approximate diameter which 
is computed by adding the top and bottom diameter together and dividing by 2. 

When the diameter of a round timber is given or the mean diameter of a log is known the 
board feet contents can be obtained by reference to the Actual Contents Table, or using the fol- 
lowing rule. 

Rule: Multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, and the product by the length, then 
divide by 12. 



Example: 

feet in length. 



I o comkniLe Qo-7iTeTiZs Of roimcl Zn^iUi 



Find the board measure contents of a round timber 20 in< 

Process: 

Square of diam. 20 x 20 equals 400 

400 multiplied by .7854 equals 314.16 

314.16 multiplied by length 50 ft., equals 15708 

15708 divided by 12 equals 1309 — the Board Feet, Contents. 




COMPUTING CONTENTS OF LOGS BY CIRCUMFERENCE 

When the mean circumference of a log or round timber is known, the following rule gives 
the actual board measure contents. 

Rule: Multiply the square of the circumference by twice the length and divide by 300. 

Example: Find the actual board measure contents of a log 60 inches mean circumference 
and 50 feet in length. 

Process: 

60 X 60 equals 3600, the square of the circumference. 

3600 X 100, (twice 50, the length) equals 360,000. 

360,000 divided by 300 equals 1200, the board measure contents. 

Note. The foregoing rule gives five feet more lumber io every thousand feet a log contains 
than if computed by the long and tedious rule of geometry and is sufficiently correct for all prac- 
tical purposes. 

The circumference of a log or circle multiplied by 0.31831 will give the diameter. 

The diameter multiplied by 3 1/7 or for greater "accuracy" by 3.1416 will give the circum- 
ference of a log or circle. 

—40— 



KNOTS AND HOW THEY ARE CLASSIFIED 
DOUGLAS FIR 

A Pin Knot does not exceed half inch in diameter. 

Round Knots are of a circular or oval formation, the average measurement across the face 
being considered the diameter. 

Spike and Slash Knots are the same, and mean that the knot is sawn in a lengthwise direction. 

Encased Knots usually are found in upper stock and are recognized by the ring of pitch which 
surrounds them; the knots on the outside of a plank may be encased, while on the heart side they 
are solid. 

A thorough knowledge of knots is essentially of the utmost importance when grading lumber. 

Knots spring from the heart in the same direction as the spokes do'from the hub of a wheel. 




The above illustration shows a 6 x 12 that has been sawn through the heart; the knots shown 
are classified as spike or slash. 

The majority of knots are black at outside point, and encased about one-third the distance 
from outside point to the heart center. 

The encased knots that penetrate lumber of one inch in thickness are liable to come out when 
and then surfaced; the damage is mostly caused by the force of the knife striking and 
loosening some of the knots as the board passes through the planer. 

In lumber two inches and over in thickness, in the Merchantable and Common grades, it is 
only in very rare instances that the knots come out. 

Special attention should be paid to the grain surrounding the knots, and the direction it takes, 
as this indicates more than anything else the strength of the piece. 



THE DOYLE RULE 

The Doyle Rule is variously known as the Connecticut River Rule, the St. Croix Rule, the 
Thurber Rule, the Moore and Beeman Rule, and the Scribner Rule— the last name due to the 
fact that it is now printed in Scribner's Lumber and Log Book. It is used throughout the entire 
country, and is more widely employed than any other rule. It is constructed by deducting 
4 inches from the small diameter of the log as an allowance for slab, squaring one-quarter 
of the remainder, and multiplying the result by the length of the log in feet. 

The important feature of the formula is that the width of slab is always uniform, regardless 
of the size of the log. This waste allowance is altogether too small for large logs and is excessive 
for small ones. The principal is mathematically incorrect, for the product of perfect logs of dif- 
ferent sizes follows an entirely different mathematical law, and it is, therefore, astonishing that this 
incorrect rule, which gives wrong results for both large and small logs, should have so general a 
use. 

Where the loss by defects in the timber and waste in milling have accidentally about balanced 
the inaccuracies of the rule, fairly accurate results have been obtained. Frequently, however,, 
mill men recognize the shortcomings of the rule and make corrections to meet their special re- 
quirements. In general the mill cut overruns the Doyle log scale by about 25 per cent for short 
logs 12 to 20 inches in diameter; and for long logs with a small top diameter the overrun is very 
much higher. 

DOYLE— SCRIBNER RULE 

This is a combination of the Doyle and Scribner rule. It is used to a great extent for scaling 
hardwoods, and is the official scale of the Hardwood Manufacturers Association of the United 
States. It is also used to a considerable extent in the scaling of Southern Pine. 

By this rule the contents of all logs 27 inches and under are measured by the Doyle 
Rule, and the Scribner Rule is used to measure logs 28 inches and over in diameter. 



41- 



BRITISH COLUMBIA LOG TABLE 

CONTENTS OF LOGS IN BOARD FEET 



Length 
in Feet 








Diameter 


in Inch 


es 










11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


10 


43 

52 

60 

69 

77 

86 

95 

103 

112 

120 

129 

137 

146 

155 

163 

172 


52 

63 

73 

84 

94 

105 

115 

126 

136 

147 

157 

168 

178 

189 

199 

210 


63 
76 
88 
101 
113 
126 
138 
151 
164 
176 
189 
201 
214 
227 
239 
252 


74 
89 
104 
119 
134 
149 
164 
178 
193 
208 
223 
238 
253 
268 
283 
297 


87 
104 
121 
139 
156 
174 
191 
208 
226 
243 
260 
278 
295 
312 
330 
347 


100 
120 
140 
160 
180 
200 
220 
240 
260 
280 
300 
320 
340 
360 
380 
400 


114 
137 
160 
183 
206 
229 
252 
274 
297 
320 
343 
366 
389 
412 
435 
457 


130 
156 
181 
207 
233 
259 
285 
311 
337 
363 
389 
415 
441 
467 
492 
518 


146 
175 
204 
233 
262 
292 
321 
350 
379 
408 
437 
466 
496 
525 
554 
583 


163 


12 


195 


14 


228 


16 . 


261 


18 


293 


20 


326 


22 


358 


24 - . 


391 


26 


424 


28 


456 


30 


489 


32 

34 

36 

38 

40 


521 
554 
586 
619 
652 


Length 
in Feet 


Diameter in Inches 




21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


10 


181 
217 
253 
290 
326 
362 
398 
434 
471 
507 
543 
579 
615 
652 
688 
724 


200 
240 
280 
320 
360 
400 
440 
480 
520 
560 
600 
640 
680 
720 
760 
800 


220 
264 
308 
352 
396 
440 
484 
528 
572 
616 
660 
704 
748 
792 
836 
880 


241 
289 
337 
386 
434 
482 
530 
578 
626 
675 
723 
771 
819 
868 
916 
964 


263 
315 
368 
421 
473 
526 
578 
631 
683 
736 
789 
841 
894 
946 
999 
1051 


286 
343 
400 
457 
514 
571 
629 
686 
743 
800 
857 
914 
971 
1029 
1086 
1143 


310 

371 

433 

495 

557 

619 

681 

743 

805 

867 

929 

990 

1052 

1114 

1176 

1238 


334 

401 

468 

535 

602 

669 

735 

802 

869 

936 

1003 

1070 

1137 

1203 

1270 

1337 


360 

432 

504 

576 

648 

720 

792 

864 

936 

1008 

1080 

1152 

1224 

1296 

1368 

1440 


387 


12 


464 


14 


541 


16 


619 


18 


696 


20 


773 


22 

24 


851 
928 


26 

28 ^ _ 

30 . . . 

32 

34 

36 


1005 
1083 
1160 
1237 
1315 
1392 


38 


1469 


40 









-42- 



BRITISH COLUMBIA LOG TABLE— Continued 
CONTENTS OF LOGS IN BOARD FEET 



Length 
in Feet 


Diameter in Inches 




31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 


37 


38 


39 


40 


10 


414 
497 
580 
663 
746 
828 
911 
994 
1077 
1160 
1243 
1326 
1408 
1491 
1574 
1657 


443 

531 

620 

708 

797 

886 

974 

1063 

1151 

1240 

1328 

1417 

1506 

1594 

1683 

1771 


472 

567 

661 

756 

850 

945 

1039 

1134 

1228 

1322 

1417 

1511 

1606 

1700 

1795 

1889 


503 
603 
704 
804 
905 
1005 
1106 
1207 
1307 
1408 
1508 
1609 
1709 
1810 
1911 
2011 


534 
641 
748 
855 
962 
1068 
1175 
1282 
1389 
1496 
1603 
1709 
1816 
1923 
2030 
2137 


567 
680 
793 
906 
1020 
1133 
1246 
1360 
1473 
1586 
1700 
1813 
1926 
2040 
2153 
2266 


600 
720 
840 
960 
1080 
1200 
1320 
1440 
1560 
1680 
1800 
1920 
2040 
2160 
2280 
2400 


634 
761 
888 
1015 
1141 
1268 
1395 
1522 
1649 
1776 
1902 
2030 
2156 
2283 
2410 
2537 


669 
803 
937 
1071 
1205 
1340 
1473 
1606 
1740 
1874 
2008 
2142 
2276 
2410 
2544 
2677 


706 


12 


847 


14 




16 


1129 


18 


1270 


20 . 




22 


1552 


24 . . 




26 




28 


1976 


30 

32 


2117 


34 


2399 


36.. 




38 




40 


2822 


m 




Length 
in Feet 


Diameter in Inches 




41 


42 


43 


44 


45 


46 


47 


48 


49 


50 


10 


743 
891 
1040 
1188 
1337 
1485 
1634 
1782 
1931 
2080 
2228 
2377 
2525 
2674 
2822 
2971 


781 
937 
1094 
1249 
1405 
1562 
1718 
1874 
2030 
2186 
2342 
2498 
2655 
2811 
2967 
3123 


820 
984 
1148 
1312 
1476 
1640 
1804 
1967 
2131 
2295 
2459 
2623 
2787 
2951 
3115 
3279 


860 
1031 
1203 
1375 
1547 
1719 
1891 
2063 
2235 
2407 
2579 
2751 
2923 
3094 
3266 
3438 


901 
1081 
1261 
1441 
1621 
1801 
1982 
2162 
2342 
2522 
2702 
2882 
3062 
3242 
3423 
3603 


943 
1131 
1320 
1508 
1697 
1885 
2074 
2262 
2451 
2639 
2828 
3016 
3205 
3393 
3582 
3770 


985 
1183 
1380 
1577 
1774 
1971 
2168 
2365 
2562 
2759 
2956 
3153 
3350 
3548 
3745 
3942 


1029 
1235 
1441 
1647 
1853 
2058 
2264 
2470 
2676 
2882 
3088 
3294 
3499 
3705 
3911 
4117 


1074 
1289 
1504 
1718 
1933 
2148 
2363 
2578 
2792 
3007 
3222 
3437 
3652 
3866 
4081 
4296 


1120 


12 

14 


1344 


16 


1791 


18 


2015 


20 




22 




24 


2687 


26-. 


2911 


28 


30 


3359 


32 . 


3583 


34 




36 




38 


4255 


40.. 









-43- 



BRITISH COLUMBIA LOG TABLE— Continued 

CONTENTS OF LOGS IN BOARD FEET 



Length 


Diameter in Inches 




51 


52 


53 


54 


55 


56 


57 


56 


59 


60 


10 - 


1166 
1400 
1633 
1866 
2099 
2333 
2565 
2799 
3032 
3266 
3499 
3732 
3965 
4199 
4432 
4665 


1214 
1457 
1699 
1942 
2185 
2428 
2671 
2913 
3156 
3399 
3642 
3885 
4127 
4370 
4613 
4856 


1262 
1515 
1767 
2020 
2272 
2525 
2777 
3030 
3282 
3535 
3787 
4040 
4292 
4545 
4797 
5050 


1312 
1574 
1837 
2099 
2362 
2624 
2886 
3149 
3411 
3674 
3936 
4198 
4461 
4723 
4986 
5248 


1360 
1632 
1904 
2176 
2448 
2721 
2993 
3265 
3537 
3809 
4081 
4353 
4625 
4897 
5169 
5441 


1414 
1697 
1979 
2262 
2545 
2828 
3110 
3393 
3676 
3959 
4242 
4524 
4807 
5090 
5373 
5655 


1466 
1759 
2053 
2346 
2639 
2932 
3226 
3519 
3812 
4105 
4399 
4692 
4985 
5278 
5572 
5865 


1520 
1823 
2127 
2431 
2735 
3039 
3343 
3647 
3951 
4255 
4559 
4862 
5166 
5470 
5774 
6078 


1574 
1889 
2203 
2518 
2833 
3148 
3462 
3777 
4092 
4407 
4721 
5036 
5351 
5666 
5980 
6295 


1629 


12 


1955 


14 


2281 


16 


2606 


18 


2932 


20 


3258 


22 


3584 


24 


3910 


26 


4235 


28 


4561 


30 


4887 


32 


5213 


34 


5536 


36 


5864 


38 


6190 


40 


6516 






Length 








Dia 


meter 


n Inch 


es 










61 


62 


63 


64 


65 


66 


67 


68 


69 


70 


10 . -.- --- 


1685 
2022 
2359 
2696 
3033 
3370 
3707 
4044 
4381 
4718 
5055 
5393 
5730 
6067 
6404 
6741 


1745 
2094 
2443 
2791 
3140 
3489 
3838 
4187 
4536 
4885 
5234 
5583 
5932 
6281 
6630 
6979 


1800 
2160 
2520 
2881 
3241 
3601 
3961 
4321 
4681 
5041 
5401 
5761 
6121 
6481 
6841 
7201 


1859 
2231 
2603 
2975 
3347 
3719 
4091 
4463 
4834 
5206 
5578 
5950 
6322 
6694 
7066 
7437 


1919 
2303 
2687 
3071 
3455 
3839 
4223 
4606 
4990 
5374 
5758 
6142 
6526 
6910 
7293 
7677 


1980 
2376 
2772 
3168 
3565 
3961 
4357 
4753 
5149 
5545 
5941 
6337 
6733 
7129 
7525 
7921 


2042 
2451 
2859 
3267 
3676 
4084 
4493 
4901 
5310 
5718 
6126 
6535 
6943 
7352 
7760 
8169 


2105 
2526 
2947 
3368 
3789 
4210 
4631 
5052 
5473 
5894 
6315 
6736 
7157 
7578 
7999 
8420 


2169 
2603 
3036 
3470 
3904 
4338 
4771 
5205 
5639 
6073 
6506 
6940 
7374 
7808 
8241 
8675 


2233 


12 


2679 


14 . . . . 


3126 


16 . 


3672 


18 


4019 


20 . 


4465 


22 


4912 


24 . . . . 


5358 


26 


5805 


28 


6251 


30 . . 


6698 


32 


7144 


34 


7591 


36 


8037 


38 


8484 


40 


8930 







DESCRIPTION OF BRITISH COLUMBIA LOG SCALE 

AS AUTHORIZED BY THE BRITISH COLUMBIA GOVERNMENT 

Deduct one and a half inches from the mean diameter in inches at the small end of the log. 

Square the result and multiply by .7854 to find area. 

Deduct three-elevenths. 

Divide by 12 to bring to board measure and multiply by the length of the log in feet. 

The above is intended to apply to all logs whose length is not greater than 40 feet. 

It is further provided that in cases of logs over 40 feet in length an allowance on half the 
length of the log is made, in order to compensate for the increase in diameter; this allowance con- 
sists of an increase in the mean diameter at the small end of one inch for each additional 10 feet 
in length over 40 feet. 

In other words, in cases of logs from 42 to 50 feet long the contents of half the length of the 
log are to be computed according to the mean diameter at the small end, the contents of the other 
half of the log according to a diameter one inch greater than the mean diameter at the small end; 
in cases of logs from 52 to 60 feet long, the contents of half the log according to the mean diameter 
at the small end, and those of the other half according to a diameter two inches greater than the 
mean at the small end, and so on; the contents of the second half to be computed according to a 
diameter one inch greater than that of the mean at the small end for each additional 10 feet in 
length after 40 feet. 

It was not, however, considered necessary to extend the table for a length of log greater than 
40 feet, as the contents of such a log of given diameter may be obtained with sufficient accuracy 
by adding the tabular contents of half the length of the log at the given diameter to the tabular 
contents of a similar log at a diameter increased one inch for each additional 10 feet in length be- 
yond 40 feet. 

AS PROVIDED UNDER SECTION 6 OF THE "ROYALTY ACT" 
Cedar 

No. 1 — Logs 16 feet and over in length, 20 inches and over in diameter, that will cut out 50 
per cent or over of their scaled contents in clear inch lumber: Provided that in cases of split timber 
the foregoing diameter shall not apply as the minimum diameter for this grade. 

No. 2 — Shingle grade. Logs not less than 16 inches in diameter and not less than 16 feet in 
length that are better than No. 3 grade, but not grade No. 1. 

No. 3 — Rough logs or tops suitable only for shiplap or dimension. 

Culls — Logs lower in grade than No. 3 shall be classed as culls. 
Douglas Fir 

No. 1 — -Logs suitable for flooring, reasonably straight, not less than 20 feet long, not less than 
30 inches in diameter, clear, free from such defects as would impair the value for clear lumber. 

No. 2 — Logs not less than 14 inches in diameter, not over 24 feet long or not less than 12 
inches in diameier, and over 24 feet, sound, reasonably straight, free from rotten knots or bunch- 
knots, and the grain straight enough to ensure strength. 

No. 3 — Logs having visible defects, such as bad crooks, bad knots, or other defects that would 
impair the value and lower the grade of lumber below merchantable. 

Culls— Logs lower in grade than No. 3 will be classed as culls. 
Spruce, Pine and Cottonwood 

No. 1 — Logs 12 feet and over in length, 30 inches in diameter and over up to 32 feet long, 
24 inches if over 32 feet long, reasonably straight, clear, free from such defects as would impair 
the value of clear lumber. 

No. 2 — Logs not less than 14 inches in diameter and not over 24 feet, or not less than 12 inches 
in diameter and over 24 feet long, sound, reasonably straight, free from rotten knots or bunch- 
knots, and the grain straight enough to ensure strength. 

No. 3 — Logs having visible defects, such as bad crooks, bad knots, or other defects that would 
lower the grade of lumber below merchantable. 

Culls — Logs lower in grade than No. 3 will be classed as culls. 

Diameter measurements, wherever referred to in this Schedule, shall be taken at the small 
end of the log. 

SCALING AND GRADING RULES OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER LOG SCALING AND 
GRADING BUREAU 

No. 1 Logs shall be 30 inches and over in diameter inside the bark at the small end and not 
less than 16 or more than 40 feet in length, and shall, in the judgment of the scaler, be practically 
suitable for the manufacture of upper grades of lumber. 

No. 2 Logs shall be 16 inches and over in diameter inside the bark at the small end and not 
less than 16 or more than 40 feet in length, and shall, in the judgment of the scaler, be practically 
suitable for the manufacture of merchantable lumber. 

No. 3 Logs shall be 12 inches and over in diameter inside the bark at the small end and not 
less than 16 or more than 40 feet in length, and shall, in the judgment of the scaler, be practically 
suitable for the manufacture of inferior grades of lumber. 

Cull Logs shall be any logs which in the judgment of the scaler are not practically suitable 
for manufacture. 

All logs to be scaled by the Spaulding Rule. 

THE SPAULDING RULE 

The Spaulding is the statute rule of California, adopted by an act of the legislature in 1878. 
It is used also in Oregon, Washington, Utah and Nevada. It was computed from carefully drawn 
diagrams of logs from 10 to 96 inches in diameter at the small end. Mill men seem to be well 
satisfied with its results. It is very similar to the Scribner Rule. 

—45— 



SPAULDING LOG TABLE 

CONTENTS OF LOGS IN BOARD FEET 



Length 














Diameter 


in Inc 


hes 








in Feet 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


16 


77 
87 
96 
106 
116 
125 
134 
144 
154 
164 
174 
183 
192 
202 
212 
222 
232 
241 
250 
259 
268 
278 
288 


94 
106 
118 
130 
142 
153 
164 
176 
188 
200 
212 
224 
236 
248 
260 
272 
284 
295 
306 
317 
328 
340 
352 


114 
129 
143 
157 
172 
186 
200 
214 
228 
243 
258 
272 
286 
300 
314 
329 
344 
358 
372 
386 
400 
414 
428 


137 
154 
171 
188 
206 
223 
240 
257 
274 
291 
308 
325 
342 
359 
376 
394 
412 
429 
446 
463 
480 
497 
514 


161 
181 
201 
221 
242 
262 
282 
302 
322 
342 
362 
382 
402 
422 
442 
463 
484 
503 
524 
544 
564 
584 
604 


188 
211 
235 
258 
282 
304 
328 
352 
376 
398 
422 
446 
470 
492 
516 
540 
564 
587 
608 
632 
656 
680 
706 


216 
243 
270 
297 
324 
360 
378 
404 
432 
458 
486 
512 
540 
566 
596 
620 
648 
674 
720 
728 
764 
782 
808 


245 
276 
306 
337 
368 
398 
428 
460 
490 
520 
552 
582 
612 
644 
674 
704 
734 
766 
796 
826 
858 
888 
920 


276 


18 


20. 

22 

24 

26 

28 


345 
379 
414 
448 
482 


30. 




32 . 




34 




36 




38 


654 


40 


600 


42 


724 


44 


758 
792 


46 


48 


828 


50 


861 


52 


896 


54 


930 


56 


964 


58 


998 


60 


1032 






Length 


Diameter in Inches 


in Feet 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


16 


308 
346 
385 
423 
462 
500 
538 
576 
616 
654 
692 
730 
770 
808 
846 
884 
924 
961 
1000 
1038 
1076 
1114 
1152 


341 
384 
426 
469 
512 
554 
596 
640 
682 
724 
768 
810 
852 
896 
938 
980 
1024 
1066 
1108 
1151 
1192 
1236 

1280 


376 
423 
470 
517 
564 
611 
658 
704 
752 
798 
846 
892 
940 
986 
1034 
1080 
1128 
1174 
1220 
1268 
1316 
1362 


412 
463 
515 
566 
618 
668 
720 
774 
824 
874 
926 
978 
1030 
1080 
1134 
1184 
1236 
1289 
1338 
1390 
1440 
1494 


449 
505 
561 
617 
674 
730 
786 
842 
898 
954 
1010 
1066 
1122 
1178 
1234 
1290 
1348 
1404 
1460 
1516 
1572 
1628 


488 
549 
610 
671 
732 
792 
854 
915 
976 
1036 
1098 
1158 
1220 
1281 
1342 
1402 
1464 
1524 
1584 
1646 
1706 
1768 


528 
594 
660 
726 
792 
858 
924 
990 
1056 
1122 
1188 
1254 
1320 
1386 
1452 
1518 
1584 
1650 
1716 
1782 
1838 
1914 
1980 


569 
640 
711 
782 
854 
924 
996 
1066 
1138 
1208 
1280 
1352 
1422 
1493 
1565 
1636 
1708 
1778 
1848 
1920 
1992 
2062 
2132 


612 
688 
765 
841 
918 
994 
1070 
1146 
1224 
1300 
1376 
1452 
1530 
1606 
1682 
1758 
1836 
1911 
1988 
2064 
2140 
2226 
2292 


656 


18 


738 


20.. . 




22 .... 




24 . . 


984 


26 


1066 


28 


1148 


30 


1230 


32 


1312 


34 


1394 


36 


1476 


38 


1558 


40 


1640 


42 


1722 


44 


1804 


46 


1886 


48 


1968 


50 




52 


2132 


54 


2214 


56 - 


2296 


58 


2378 


60 

































-46— 



SPAULDING LOG TABLE— Continued 

CONTENTS OF LOGS IN BOARD FEET 



Diameter in Inches 



Length 
in Feet 



16. 
18. 
20. 
22. 
24. 
26. 
28. 
30. 
32. 
34- 
36- 
38- 
40- 
42- 
44- 
46- 
48- 
50- 



701 
789 
876 
964 
1052 
1139 
1226 
1314 
1402 
1490 
1578 
1664 
1752 
1840 
1928 
2016 
2104 
2190 



748 
841 
935 
1028 
1122 
1214 
1308 
1402 
1496 
1588 
1682 
1776 
1870 
1963 
2056 
2150 
2244 
2337 



796 
895 
995 
1094 
1194 
1292 
1392 
1492 
1592 
1690 
1790 
1890 
1990 
2089 
2188 
2288 
2388 
2486 



845 
951 
1056 
1162 
1268 
1372 
1478 
1584 
1690 
1796 
1902 
2006 
2112 
2218 
2324 
2430 
2536 
2640 



897 
1009 
1121 
1233 
1346 
1458 
1570 
1682 
1794 
1906 
2018 
2130 
2242 
2354 
2466 
2579 
2692 
2804 



950 
1069 
1188 
1307 
1426 
1544 
1662 
1782 
1900 
2020 
2138 
2256 
2376 
2495 
2614 
2732 
2852 
2970 



37 


38 


39 


1006 


1064 


1124 


1132 


1197 


1264 


1258 


1330 


1405 


1384 


1463 


1545 


1510 


1596 


1686 


1634 


1728 


1826 


1760 


1862 


1966 


1886 


1994 


2106 


2012 


2128 


2248 


2138 


2261 


2388 


2264 


2394 


2528 


2390 


2526 


2668 


2516 


2660 


2810 


2642 


2793 


2950 


2768 


2926 


3090 


2894 


3059 


3230 


3020 


3192 


3372 


3144 


3324 


3512 



Diameter in Inches 



Length 
in Feet 



16. 
18. 
20. 
22. 
24- 
26- 
28. 
30. 
32- 
34- 
36- 
38- 
40- 



1248 
1404 
1560 
1716 
1872 
2028 
2184 
2340 
2496 
2652 
2808 
2964 
3120 



1312 
1476 
1640 
1804 
1968 
2132 
2296 
2460 
2624 
2788 
2952 
3116 
3280 



1377 
1549 
1721 
1893 
2066 
2238 
2410 
2582 
2754 
2926 
3098 
3270 
3442 



1448 
1629 
1810 
1991 
2172 
2352 
2534 
2714 
2896 
3076 
3258 
3439 
3620 



1512 
1701 
1890 
2079 
2268 
2456 
2646 
2834 
3024 
3212 
3402 
3590 
3780 



1581 
1779 
1976 
2174 
2372 
2568 
2766 
2964 
3162 
3360 
3558 
3755 
3952 



1652 
1858 
2065 
2271 
2478 
2684 
2890 
3096 
3304 
3510 
3716 
3923 
4130 



1724 
1939 
2155 
2370 
2586 
2800 
3016 
3232 
3448 
3663 
3879 
4094 
4310 



1797 
2022 
2246 
2470 
2696 
2920 
3144 
3370 
3594 
3819 
4043 
4268 
4492 



Diameter in Inches 



Length 
in Feet 



16. 
18. 
20 
22. 
24. 
26. 
28. 
30. 
32. 



52 


53 


54 


55 


56 


57 


58 


59 


2025 


2104 


2184 


2266 


2350 


2486 


2524 


2613 


2278 


2367 


2457 


2550 


2644 


2740 


2839 


2940 


2531 


2630 


2730 


2833 


2938 


3045 


3155 


3266 


2784 


2893 


3003 


3116 


3232 


3349 


3470 


3592 


3038 


3156 


3276 


3400 


3526 


3654 


3786 


3920 


3290 


3418 


3548 


3682 


3818 


3958 


4100 


4246 


3544 


3682 


3822 


3966 


4112 


4262 


4416 


4572 


3796 


3944 


4094 


4250 


4406 


4566 


4732 


4900 


4050 


4203 


4368 


4532 


4700 


4872 


5048 


5226 



-47- 



SCRIBNER LOG TABLE 

CONTENTS OF LOGS IN BOARD FEET 



Length 
in Feet 



Diameter in Indies 



10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 
26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
36 
38 
40 
42 
44 
46 
48 
50 
52 
54 
56 
58 
60 
62 
64 
66 
68 



79 
88 
98 
108 
118 
127 
137 
147 
157 
167 
176 
186 
196 
206 
216 
225 
235 
245 
255 
265 
274 
284 
294 
304 
314 
323 
333 
343 



61 
73 
85 
97 
109 
122 
134 
146 
159 
171 
183 
195 
207 
220 
232 
244 
256 
268 
281 
293 
305 
317 
329 
342 
354 
366 
378 
390 
403 
415 
427 



100 
114 
129 
143 
157 
172 
186 
200 
214 
229 
243 
257 
272 
286 
300 
315 
329 
343 
357 
372 
386 
400 
405 
429 
443 
458 
472 
486 
500 



107 
125 
142 
160 
178 
196 
214 
231 
249 
267 
285 
303 
320 
338 
356 
374 
392 
409 
427 
445 
463 
481 
498 
516 
534 
552 
570 
587 
605 
623 



119 
139 
159 
178 
198 
218 
238 
257 
277 
297 
317 
337 
356 
376 
396 
416 
436 
455 
475 
495 
515 
535 
554 
574 
594 
614 
634 
653 
673 
693 



116 
139 
162 
185 
208 
232 
255 
278 
302 
325 
348 
371 
394 
418 
441 
464 
487 
510 
534 
557 
580 
603 
626 
650 
673 
696 
719 
742 
766 
789 
812 



160 
187 
213 
240 
267 
294 
320 
347 
374 
400 
427 
454 
481 
507 
534 
561 
587 
614 
641 
667 
694 
721 
748 
774 
801 
828 
854 
881 



150 
180 
210 
240 
270 
300 
330 
360 
390 
420 
450 
480 
510 
540 
570 
600 
630 
660 
690 
720 
750 
780 
810 
840 
870 
900 
930 
960 
990 
1020 
1050 



175 

210 

245 

280 

315 

350 

385 

420 

455 

490 

525 

560 

595 

630 

665 

700 

735 

770 

805 

840 

875 

910 

945 

980 

1015 

1050 

1085 

1120 

1155 

1190 

1225 



TO COMPUTE THE SPAULDING RULE 

The following formula gives a result closely identical with the Spaulding Log Rule. 

Rule: To compute the number of board feet in a log without allowing for taper, taiie the 
mean or average diameter of the small end inside the bark, square the diameter from which deduct 
the product of three times the diameter, multiply the remainder by one-half the length of the log 
and divide the result by 10 or point off right hand figure. The result is the board feet contents 
with saw kerf and slabs allowed for. 



Example: Find the board feet 
feet long. 

Process: 

30x30 equal 
Deduct 



The result is the 
tents of a log 30 inches diameter at small end and 40 



90 three times product of diameter. 



810 
Half the length 20 



16200 divided by 10 equals 1620, the board feet contents. 



WHY LUMBER SHOULD BE SEASONED BEFORE TREATMENT WITH 
PRESERVATIVES 

The reason for seasoning beiore treatment is that ties or other lumber if creosoted when 
"green" will check severely aiter treatment, due to the moisture in the interior of the lumber, and 
interior rot will ensue. Although a uniform penetration of about one-half inch is secured in the 
treatment of green ties, the checks will extend through this region and allow decay to reach the 
interior. 

If lumber is well seasoned before treatment, on the other hand, all the checking will take place 
previous to the treatment, and the creosote will fill all of the checks, thus preventing decay. 



SCRIBNER LOG TABLE— Continued 

CONTENTS OF LOGS IN BOARD FEET 



Length 
in Feet 



Diameter in Inches 



10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 
26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
36 
38 
40 
42 
44 
46 
48 
50 
52 
54 
56 
58 
60 
62. 
64 
66 
68. 
70 



190 
228 
266 
304 
342 
380 
418 
456 
494 
532 
570 



722 

760 

798 

836 

874 

912 

950 

988 

1026 

1064 

1102 

1140 

1178 

1216 

1254 

1292 

1330 



209 

251 

292 

334 

376 

418 

460 

502 

543 

587 

627 

669 

711 

752 

794 

836 

878 

920 

961 

1003 

1045 

1087 

1129 

1170 

1212 

1254 

1296 

1338 

1379 

1421 

1463 



235 

283 

330 

377 

424 

470 

517 

564 

611 

658 

705 

752 

799 

846 

893 

940 

987 

1034 

1081 

1128 

1175 

1222 

1269 

1316 

1363 

1410 

1457 

1504 

1551 

1598 

1645 



252 
303 
353 

404 
454 
505 
555 
606 
656 
707 
757 



909 
959 
1010 
1060 
1111 
1161 
1212 
1262 
1313 
1363 
1414 
1464 
1515 
1565 
1616 
1666 
1717 
1767 



287 

344 

401 

459 

516 

573 

630 

688 

745 

802 

859 

917 

974 

1031 

1089 

1146 

1203 

1261 

1318 

1375 

1432 

1490 

1547 

1604 

1662 

1719 

1776 

1834 

1891 

1948 

2005 



313 

375 

439 

500 

562 

625 

687 

750 

812 

875 

937 

1000 

1062 

1125 

1187 

1250 

1312 

1375 

1437 

1500 

1562 

.1625 

1687 

1750 

1812 

1875 

1937 

2000 

2062 

2125 

2187 



342 
411 

479 

548 

616 

684 

752 

821 

889 

958 

1026 

1094 

1162 

1231 

1300 

1368 

1436 

1505 

1572 

1642 

1710 

1778 

1847 

1915 

1984 

2052 

2120 

2189 

2257 

2326 

2394 



363 

436 

509 

582 

654 

728 

801 

874 

946 

1019 

1092 

1165 

1238 

1310 

1383 

1456 

1529 

1602 

1674 

1747 

1820 

1893 

1966 

2038 

2111 

2184 

2257 

2330 

2402 

2475 

2548 



381 

457 

533 

609 

685 

761 

837 

913 

989 

1065 

1141 

1218 

1294 

1370 

1446 

1522 

1598 

1674 

1750 

1826 

1902 

1979 

2055 

2131 

2207 

2283 

2359 

2435 

2511 

2587 

2663 



411 

493 

575 

657 

739 

821 

903 

985 

1067 

1149 

1231 

1314 

1396 

1478 

1560 

1642 

1724 

1806 

1888 

1970 

2052 

2135 

2217 

2299 

2381 

2463 

2545 

2627 

2709 

2791 

2873 



THE SCRIBNER RULE 

This is the oldest log scale now in general use. It was originally published in Scribner's 
Lumber and Log Book, in later editions of which it was replaced by the Doyle Ruile. It is now 
usually called the "Old Scribner Rule," and is used to some extent in nearly every state. The rule 
was based on computations derived from diagrams drawn to show the number of inch boards that 
can be sawed from logs of different sizes after allowing for waste. The contents of these boards 
was then calculated and the table built up in this way. 

Sometimes the Scribner Rule is converted into what is known as the Scribner Decimal Rule 
by dropping the units and rounding the values to the nearest tens. Thus 107 board feet would 
be written 11 in the Decimal Rule; 104 would be written 10. The Hyslop Rule is practically the 
same as the Scribner Decimal Rule. The Scribner Rule is known in Minnesota as the Minnesota 
Standard Rule. In the original table no values were given below a diameter of 12 inches. 

In the judgment of most sawyers, the Scribner Rule gives very fair results for small logs cut 
by circular saws (about 8 gauge), but that for larger logs, about 28 inches, for example, the re- 
sults are too small. It often happens that defects are greater in large logs than in small oaes, 
because the larger are from older trees, which are more likely to be overmature. Even with these, 
however, the Scribner Rule is fairly satisfactory if the scaler does not make a further deduction 
for defects. As a matter of fact, a log rule should make no allowance for defect, because that is 
unfair to high-grade sound logs; only the scaler should make such allowance. In sound logs the 
saw cut has been known to overrun the Scribner scale from 10 to 20 per cent. 

The Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture has adopted the Scribner 
Decimal Rule for timber sales on the National Forests. It has been in use for about four years 
and, in the main, has proved satisfactory, since competitive bids enable the buyer to bid higher 
if the character of the logs indicates a mill overrun. 



-49- 



SCRIBNER LOG TABLE— Continued 

CONTENTS OF LOGS IN BOARD FEET 



Length 
in Feet 


Diameter in Inches 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 


37 


38 


39 


40 


10 


444 
532 
622 
710 
799 
888 
977 
1066 
1154 
1243 
1332 
1421 
1510 
1598 
1687 
1776 
1865 
1954 
2042 
2131 
2220 
2309 
2398 
2486 
2575 
2664 
2753 
2842 
2930 
3019 
3108 


460 
552 
644 
736 
828 
920 
1012 
1104 
1196 
1288 
1380 
1472 
1564 
1656 
1748 
1840 
1932 
2024 
2116 
2208 
2300 
2392 
2484 
2576 
2668 
2760 
2852 
2944 
3036 
3128 
3220 


490 
588 
686 
784 
882 
980 
1078 
1176 
1274 
1372 
1470 
1568 
1666 
1764 
1862 
1960 
2058 
2156 
2254 
2352 
2450 
2548 
2646 
2744 
2842 
2940 
3038 
3136 
3234 
3332 
3430 


500 
600 
700 
800 
900 
1000 
1100 
1200 
1300 
1400 
1500 
1600 
1700 
1800 
1900 
2000 
2100 
2200 
2300 
2400 
2500 
2600 
2700 
2800 
2900 
3000 
3100 
3200 
3300 
3400 
3500 


547 
657 
766 
876 
985 
1095 
1204 
1314 
1423 
1533 
1642 
1752 
1861 
1971 
2080 
2190 
2299 
2409 
2518 
2628 
2737 
2847 
2956 
3066 
3175 
3285 
3394 
3504 
3613 
3723 
3832 


577 
692 
807 
923 
1038 
1152 
1267 
1382 
1498 
1613 
1728 
1343 
1958 
2074 
2189 
2304 
2419 
2534 
2650 
2765 
2880 
2995 
3110 
3226 
3341 
3456 
3571 
3686 
3802 
3917 
4032 


644 
772 
901 
1029 
1158 
1287 
1416 
1544 
1673 
1802 
1930 
2059 
2188 
2317 
2445 
2574 
2703 
2831 
2960 
3089 
3217 
3346 
3475 
3604 
3732 
3861 
3990 
4118 
4247 
4376 
4504 


669 
801 
934 
1068 
1201 
1335 
1468 
1602 
1735 
1869 
2002 
2136 
2269 
2403 
2536 
2670 
2803 
2937 
3070 
3204 
3337 
3471 
3604 
3738 
3871 
4005 
4138 
4272 
4405 
4538 
4672 


700 
840 
980 
1120 
1260 
1400 
1540 
1680 
1820 
1960 
2100 
2240 
2380 
2520 
2660 
2800 
2940 
3080 
3220 
3360 
3500 
3640 
3780 
3920 
4060 
4200 
4340 
4480 
4629 
4760 
4900 


752 


12 


903 


14 


1053 


16 

18 

20 


1204 
1354 
1505 


22... 

24 


1655 
1806 


26 


1956 


28 


2107 


30 


2257 


32 


2408 


34 


2558 


36 . 


2709 


38 


2859 


40 


3010 


42 


3160 




3311 


46 -- 


3461 


48 


3612 


50 


3762 


52 


3913 


54 


4063 


56 


4214 


58 


4364 


60 


4515 


62 


4665 


64 


4816 


66 


4966 


68 


5117 


70 


5267 







GROWTH OF TREES 

Since there is a marked tendency among timberland owners to cut their timber with an eye 
to the tuture, some knowledge of the growth of forest trees becomes important. 

Trees grow by adding each year a layer of wood underneath the bark. Since each year con- 
tains only one growing season and the spring and summer part of this layer are not alike, each 
year's growth, layer, or "annual ring" usually is distinguishable. The central fact of tree growth 
is that each ring means a year. The exceptions to this are not important enough to merit notice 
here. 

Trees growing in the heart of the forest are generally straight and tall as it is necessary for 
their leaves to receive sunlight and air sufficient for vitalizing the sap; the lower branches of these 
trees only last a few years when they die and fall off. On the edges of the forest the lower branches 
of the trees remain alive and active so that timber cut from such places is knotty and occasionally 
cross-grained, while that cut from the inside trees is straight grained and contains a larger per- 
centage of clear lumber. 

OLD GROWTH LOGS 

In reference to lumber manufactured from "old growth" logs, it means that the tfees from 
which they were logged are mature, of large diameter and grown in a virgin forest, and not from 
trees in a process of decay through age. 

Old growth Douglas Fir furnishes excellent lumber for high grade wide clears, in either edge 
or slash grain. 

—50— 



SCRIBNER LOG TABLE— Continued 

CONTENTS OF LOGS IN BOARD FEET 



Length 
in Feet 


Diameter in Inches 




. 41 


42 


43 


44 


45 


46 


47 


48 


49 


50 


20 


1590 
1749 
1908 
2067 
2226 
2385 
2544 
2703 
2862 
3021 
3180 
3339 
3498 
3657 
3816 
3975 


1679 
1847 
2015 
2183 
2351 
2518 
2686 
2854 
3022 
3190 
3358 
3526 
3694 
3862 
4030 
4197 


1745 
1919 
2094 
2268 
2443 
2617 
2792 
2966 
3141 
3315 
3490 
3664 
3839 
4013 
4188 
4362 


1850 
2035 
2220 
2405 
2590 
2775 
2960 
3145 
3330 
3515 
3700 
3885 
4070 
4255 
4440 
4625 


1898 
2038 
2278 
2467 
2657 
2847 
3037 
3227 
3416 
3606 
3796 
3986 
4176 
4365 
4555 
4745 


1983 
2181 
2380 
2578 
2776 
2974 
3173 
3371 
3569 
3768 
3966 
4164 
4363 
4561 
4759 
4957 


2070 
2277 
2484 
2591 
2898 
3105 
3312 
3519 
3726 
3933 
4140 
4347 
4554 
4761 
4968 
5175 


2160 
2376 
2592 
2808 
3024 
3240 
3456 
3672 
3888 
4104 
4320 
4536 
4752 
4968 
5184 
5400 


2246 
2471 
2695 
2920 
3124 
3369 
3594 
3818 
4043 
4267 
4492 
4717 
4941 
5166 
5390 
5615 


2340 
2574 
2808 
3042 
3276 
3510 
3744 
3978 
4212 
4446 
4680 
4914 
5148 
5382 
5616 
5850 


22 


24 


26 


28 . . 


30 


32 


34. 


36... 


38 


40.. 


42 


44 


46 


48.. 


50 




Length 
in Feet 


Diameter in Inches 




51 


52 


53 


54 


55 


56 


57 


58 


59 


60 


20 


2434 
2677 
2921 
3164 
3408 
3651 
3894 
4138 
4381 
4625 
4868 
5111 
5355 
5598 
5842 
6085 


2530 
2783 
3036 
3289 
3542 
3795 
4048 
4301 
4554 
4807 
5060 
5313 
5566 
5819 
6072 
6325 


2630 
2893 
3156 
3419 
3682 
3945 
4208 
4471 
4734 
4997 
5260 
5523 
5786 
6049 
6312 
6575 


2730 
3003 
3276 
3549 
3822 
4095 
4368 
4641 
4914 
5187 
5460 
5733 
6006 
6279 
6552 
6825 


2832 
3115 
3398 
3682 
3965 
4248 
4531 
4814 
5098 
5381 
5664 
5947 
6230 
6514 
6797 
7080 


2938 
3232 
3526 
3819 
4113 
4407 
4701 
4995 
5288 
5582 
5876 
6170 
6464 
6757 
7051 
7345 


3044 
3348 
3653 
3957 
4262 
4566 
4870 
5175 
5479 
5784 
6088 
6392 
6697 
7001 
7306 
7610 


3154 
3469 
3785 
4100 
4416 
4731 
5046 
5262 
5677 
5993 
6308 
6623 
6939 
7254 
7570 
7885 


3266 
3593 
3919 
4246 
4572 
4899 
5226 
5552 
5879 
6205 
6532 
6859 
7185 
7512 
7838 
8165 


3380 
3718 
4056 


22 


24 . 


26 


28 




30 


5070 


32 


5408 


34 . 




36 




38 


6422 


40 


6760 


42 . 




44 




46 


7774 


48. 




50 









—51 — 



SCRIBNER LOG TABLE— Continued 

CONTENTS OF LOGS IN BOARD FEET 



Length 








Diameter in 1 nc 


hes 








in Feet 


61 


62 


63 


64 


65 


66 


67 


68 


69 


70 


20. 


3496 
3846 
4195 
4545 
4894 
5244 
5594 
5943 
6293 
6642 
6992 
7342 
7691 
8041 
8390 
8740 


3614 
3975 
4337 
4698 
5060 
5421 
5782 
6144 
6505 
6867 
7228 
7589 
7951 
8312 
8674 
9035 


3734 
4107 
4481 
4854 
5228 
5601 
5974 
6348 
6721 
7095 
7468 
7841 
8215 
8588 
8962 
9335 


3858 
4244 
4630 
5015 
5401 
5787 
6173 
6559 
6944 
7330 
7716 
8102 
8488 
8874 
9260 
9645 


3982 
4380 
4778 
5177 
5575 
5973 
6371 
6769 
7168 
7566 
7964 
8362 
8760 
9158 
9556 
9955 


4110 
4521 
4932 
5343 
5754 
6165 
6576 
6987 
7398 
7809 
8220 
8631 
9042 
9453 
9864 
10275 


4240 
4664 
5088 
5512 
5936 
6360 
6784 
7208 
7632 
8056 
8480 
8904 
9328 
9752 
10176 
10600 


4374 
4811 
5249 
5686 
6124 
6561 
6998 
7436 
7873 
8311 
8748 
9185 
9622 
10060 
10498 
10935 


4510 
4961 
5412 
5863 
6314 
6765 
7216 
7667 
8118 
8569 
9020 
9471 
9922 
10373 
10824 
11275 


4648 


22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

32 


5113 
5578 
6042 
6507 
6972 
7437 


34 

36 


7902 
8366 


38 


8831 


40 

42 

44 


9296 
9761 
10226 


46 

48 

50 


10791 
11156 
11620 







DIAMETER GROWTH 

Some trees grow so slowly that a hand lens is necessary to clearly distinguish the rings, others 
may have rings a half inch in width. In any case, a little practice improves the ability to note 
aU the rings. 

To find the age of a felled tree at any section, then, requires only the accurate counting of the 
rings. The total age of the tree is shown by the total number of rings at the ground; or the total 
number of rings on the stump plus the number of years required to grow as high as the stump. 
An examination of a number of small trees would give an idea of the time required to grow up to 
stump height. This varies from one year in trees coming up as stump sprouts to as high as twenty 
years or more in some Rocky Mountain conifers, for heights of 1 to 3 feet. 

Since trees often grow faster on one side than another, the average growth is gotten only by 
finding the average radius and counting and measuring the rings along it. Thus the radius of the 
tree may be found at ten, twenty, thirty years, etc., and by doubling these the diameters are found 
at these ages. 

EXPLANATION OF THE TERM "SAP" 

The term "sap" sometimes is used wrongly to mean the moisture in wood, and at other times 
to mean the sapwood. Sap is formed, mainly in the early spring, in the leaves from water rising 
from the roots through the sapwood. In the leaves this water is converted into true sap, which 
contains sugar and soluble gums. The sap descends through the bark and feeds the tissues in 
process of formation between the bark and the sapwood. The heartwood contains no sap. 

SAPWOOD AND HEARTWOOD 

The end surface of a log usually shows an outer lighter colored region, the sapwood, and an 
inner darker core, the heartwood. All young wood is light-colored; but as the tree becomes older 
the inner part becomes infiltrated with gums, resins, and other mateiials the exact nature of which 
has not been determined, which color the wood to a greater or less degree. 

In some woods the heartwood is very dark, and in others there is little difference in color 
between the sapwood and heartwood. The spruces, true firs (not Douglas Fir), Hemlock, Port 
Orford cedar, and Buckeye belong to the latter class. In lodgepole pine, pinon, cottonwood, beech 
(white heart), cotton gum, sycamore, hackberry, and basswood, the heartwood is only slightly 
darker than the sapwood. The sapwood is often not white but is slightly tinged with the same 
color that is found in the heartwood. In black locust, honey locust, coffeetree. mulberry, and 
osage orange the sapwood is pale yellowish. The hark sometimes discolors the sapwood by leach- 
ing after the tree is cut. Sap stain imparts a bluish color to the sapwood, especially in the pines, 
hackberry, sugarberry and red gum. 

Douglas Fir and Western Larch occasionally contain zones of light colored wood 
inside the heartwood. These zones are known as internal sapwood. They have been 
found to take preservative treatment as well as the outer sapwood. 

The width of the sapwood varies with the age and vigor of the tree, the distance from the 
stump, and the species. Young and vigorous trees have wider sapwood than mature trees, although 
more annual rings are usually present in the sapwood of old trees because of their slower growth 
in diameter. The sapwood decreases in width from the stump to the top and often varies in dif- 
ferent directions from the center, so that an annual ring may be sapwood in one part of a tree 
and heartwood in another. 



-52- 



DECAY AND DRY ROT IN DOUGLAS FIR 

Its Cause and Appearance 

Dry rot universally, classed as stained lumber by mill men, is frequently caused by bacteria 
attacking trees, that are located in districts where the soil is of such a nature that it is unable to 
properly nourish and keep them in a healthy condition as they approach maturity. 

The infection appears to start from the ground, as is plainly shown by the prevalence of dry 
rot in Butt Logs. In most cases this form of decay takes the same direction as the annual rings, 
and is easily recognized by its brown or violet shade. 

In freshly sawn lumber dry rot can be detected by its mouldy odor, and its appearance in the 
first stage is indicated by a reddish tinge, and when knots are large they are usually black. In 
the second stage darker red and gray streaks predominate. The last stage is dark gray or choco- 
late color with soft spots and knots that are black or rotten. Occasionally dry rot is of a violet 
shade, but this color soon fades after sawing and in the course of a few days changes to dull gray. 



White Specks: This form of decay is caused by fungi attacking the wood that is located 
in a damp atmosphere. When this species of fungi germinates it sends out a thin, filmlike white 
thread which by repeated branching penetrates the entire structure of the wood, eating away the 
fiber and causing the wood to become brittle and rotten. 

The process of decay is hastened by alternate exposure to moisture and dryness. 

When logs affected by the first stages of dry rot are sawn the lumber, though stained if ex- 
posed to the sun or dry air for a few days, will assume a natural color, and will often defy detec- 
tion unless closely inspected. 

It is against the rules to pile for foreign cargo shipment, lumber containing dry 
rot in any stage, as this class of lumber is excluded from the export merchantable and 
better grades. 

WOOD DESTROYING FUNGI 

The fungi that causes what is generally termed "dry rot" in wood, is a low form of plant life, 
which can only progress under continued conditions of moisture, they also require a small amount 
of air, as they absorb oxygen like all other plants. They are not susceptible to cold and will live 
through extremely cold spells, but thrive best at from 75 to 85 degrees fahrenheit. 

Out of about 50 species of wood destroying fungi tested at the Forest Products Laboratory, 
Madison, Wisconsin, it was found that none grew after being subjected to a temperature of 118 
degrees fahrenheit. 

If lumber infected with the preliminary stages of dry rot is thoroughly air or kiln dried the 
decay will cease, and if it is maintained in a dry condition for any considerable length of time, 
the fungi undoubtedly will be entirely killed. 

VALUE OF FIRE KILLED AND DEAD TIMBER 

Lumber that is manufatured from insect or fire killed trees is just as good for any structural 
purpose as that cut from live trees of similar quality provided the wood has not been subsequently 
injured by decay or further insect attack. 

The fact is frequently overlooked that the heartwood of all trees is dead. It no longer fun- 
ctions in an important way in the life of the tree. It serves in a mechanical way to sustain the 
weight of the trunk by furnishing the strength that is necessary to stand against strong winds. 
The heartwood provides a storing place for water while the tree is yet alive and in a less degree 
for food necessary for the tree's growth; but such service is not absolutely necessary, for it is well 
known that many trees survive and continue to grow many years after the heartwood has wholly 
decayed. The sycamore furnishes a good example of this. Large trunks of that species are 
usually hollow, there being only a thin shell of sapwood with all the heartwood gone. 

There in no such thing as living heartwood. All wood is originally sapwood and as the inner 
layers die they become heart. Therefore, all lumber sawed from heart is dead; but it is not dis- 
criminated against on that account. Only sap lumber is cut from living wood. 

In some respects dead timber may have a slight advantage over living, because the wood has 
been partly seasoned, is a little lighter to handle, takes creosote better and does not require so 
much kiln or air drying after it has been converted into lumber. 

Result of Recent Test of Fire Killed Poles 

The following is the result of a test made by United States District Forester, Allen S. Peck, 
of 561 poles belonging to the Rifle Light, Heat and Power Company, Colorado. 

The poles were installed between the company's plant and the town of Rifle eleven years 
ago. _ They were from fire-killed pine trees and were treated with creosote at the forest depart- 
ment's plant at Norrie, Colo. The test showed that 90 per cent of the poles are still sound after 
eleven years in the ground. There has long been a prejudice against fire-killed pine for com- 
mercial purposes, the district forester declares, particularly by railroad companies, which refuse 
to use them for ties. The creosote test removes all reasons for this prejudice, according to the 
forestry official, and opens up the way for the disposal of large quantities of fire-killed timber in 
Colorado. 

DESTRUCTION OF WOOD BY ANIMAL LIFE 

The destruction of wood by certain forms of animal life is not as great as that due to decay 
but constitutes the principal menace to the life of timber used in salt waters exceeding a certain 
minimum salinity where the temperature is high enough to sustain the life of certain forms of 
mollusks and crustaceans which find their food or make their homes in wood. This form of de- 
struction is encountered in piling and construction timbers subject to the attack of teredos, xylotrya, 
pholas and other members of the mollusk family, and of limnoria, sphaeroma, chelura and other 
members of the crustacean family. In certain countries, also, timber is attacked on dry land by 
termites or white ants, as in China, India, Mexico, and parts of the Southwestern region of the 
United States. 

—53— 



DENSITY OF WOOD 

Dense as applied to wood, means compact, heavy (when dry), containing much wood sub- 
stance in small space. For example, hickory is a very dense wood. 

The oven dry specific gravity is a measure of the density of wood. 

The term "dense wood" is used to define the quality of wood which is desirable in timbers 
subjected to stresses such as occur in frame structures. The term applies to the wood itself, ir- 
respective of defects. Since dry weight, which is the most accurate index to the mechanical 
properties of wood, cannot be determined from a casual inspection of the timber, dense — or, in 
other words, comparatively heavy — wood wiU be defined as: 

(1) Wood that shows more than eight rings per inch, or the rings of which contain more than 
30 per cent summerwood. 

(2) Wood which is resilient — that is, which, when struck with a hammer or similar blunt 
instrument, gives a sharp, clear sound, while the hammer shows a marked tendency to rebound 
and the wood to recover from the effects of the blow. 

CAUSES OF VARIATIONS IN STRENGTH 

Variations in strength of timber can be accounted for more accurately than is usually supposed. 
In some species there is a difference in strength in wood from different positions in the tree, dif- 
ferent localities of growth, etc. But such variations have been overestimated, and a knowledge 
of them is not essential in order to estimate with a fair degree of accuracy the properties of a piece 
of timber. Differences in strength are usually due to differences in defects, moisture content, 
or density, or to combinations of these. 

Differences of moisture content cause considerable variation in the strength values of air-dry 
or partially air-dry material, but have no effect as long as all material is thoroughly green. 

One of the principal factors causing differences in strength is variable density. As might 
be expected, the greater the density of a given stick or the more wood it has per unit volume, the 
stronger is the stick. 

Accurate determinations made at the Forest Products Laboratory on seven species of wood, 
including both hardwood and coniferous species, showed a range of only about 4K.per cent in the 
density of the wood substance, or material of which the cell walls are composed. Since the density 
of wood substance is so nearly constant, it may be said that the density or specific gravity of a given 
piece of wood is a measure of the amount of wood substance contained in it. 

ANNUAL RINGS 

Annual rings denote the spring and summer growth of the tree; the spring ring is distinguished 
by its light color; it is invariably wider than the summer ring on account of its more rapid growth 
which produces a softer fiber. The summer ring is darker in color, is harder and has a much more 
solid appearance than the spring ring. The line of separation in annual rings is caused by the 
suspension of the growth of the stem during winter. 

The annual rings are not always uniform as they are generally thicker on that side of the tree 
which has the longest exposure to the sun. For this reason the distance from pith to bark will 
often vary several inches; for instance, the measurement of a log from heart to bark would be, 
say 15 inches on one side and 20 inches on the other. 

The widest rings are found around the heart center from whence they gradually diminish in 
thickness as they radiate towards the sap, where their growth is so compact that it is almost im- 
possible to count them without the aid of a microscope. 

In determining the strength of lumber which is the principal point when inspecting the mer- 
chantable grades generally used for high class constructional purposes, the width, uniformity and 
compactness of the growth of the annual rings should be carefully noted. When the summer ring 
is narrow and the spring ring wide or porous, weakness is the result. When the spring and summer 
rings are nearly equal in width and uniformly close, it denotes natural strength so requisite in the 
quality of lumber used for ship and bridge work, masts, spars, dredge spuds, derricks or simdar 
purposes for which Douglas Fir is unequalled. 

In small trees the annual rings are proportionately closer and inore uniform from heart center 
to bark than the larger species, though there are occasional exceptions. 

The annual rings are larger at the top than at the base of tree. 

Small and medium sized logs which range from 17 to 36 inches in diameter, as a rule produce 
excellent timbers and a good grade of merchantable lumber. 

ANNUAL RINGS DENSITY AND DECAY 

Specific gravity or density of lumber materially influences resistance to decay of the heart- 
wood; the more dense the wood the more durable it is. Specific gravity is a property which can 
not be determined from inspection, but it can be estimated by recourse to the proportion ot sum- 
merwood to springwood in the annual growth rings which proves to be a safe criterion of the dura- 
bility of heartwood; i. e., an increase in summerwood results in an increase in specific gravity. 
The specific gravity of Douglas Fir when freshly sawn is 640. 

The width of the growth rings furnishes a further index of durability; the summerwood, which 
is of greater density and contains more pitch, shows more resistance to fungus attack than the 
spring rings of porous growth. 

The resisting qualities of pitch to decay is principally through its water-proofing effect on 
wood, and thus its influence on the absorption of moisture by wood containing it; that is, the 
power of wood to absorb moisture is very important in its decay. It is well known that below a 
certain maximum of moisture in wood, fungi will not grow. Any property of the wood which will 
influence this balance of moisture is of importance in decay resistance. Thus, if the wood con- 
tains enough pitch to have a material waterproofing effect, it must play a role in durability. 

—54— 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY 

The weight of wood is sometimes expressed by a comparison of the weight of a given volume 
of wood with that of an equal volume of water, or by what is known as "specific gravity." If 
the specific gravity of a certain kind of wood is stated as .300, it means that a given volume of 
this wood weighs .300 times as much as an equal volume of water. Since a cubic foot of water 
weighs 62.5 pounds, or 1000 ounces, a cubic foot of wood of specific gravity of .300 weighs .300 
times 62.5 equals 18.75 pounds. 

A cubic foot of green Douglas Fir whose specific gravity is .640, weighs .640 times 62.5 equals 
40 pounds per cubic foot. Hence the weight per cubic foot of any kind of wood can be quickly 
ascertained when the specific gravity is known. 

The specific gravity of a body or substance divided by 16 will give the weight of a cubic foot 
of it in pounds. 

Example: The specific gravity of a cubic foot of green Douglas Fir is 640; what is the 
weight of it? 

Process: 640 divided by 16 equals 40, the weight of a cubic foot in pounds. 

When the weight of a cubic foot of lumber is known, the specific gravity can be ascertained 
by multiplying the number of pounds by 16. 

Example: Find the specific gravity of dry Redwood weighing 26 pounds per cubic foot. 

Process: 26 times 16 equals 416, the specific gravity. 

Douglas Fir is a remarkably strong wood for its weight; its strength in terms of specific 
gravity, being materially greater than the average of American woods. This makes it a material 
of much greater strength than woods of its own weight, and equal in strength to much heavier 
woods. 



THE TREE BORER 

The tree borer or wood grub worm is about three to four inches 
long; its body is about half an inch in diameter and of a light cream color. 
The head, which is smaller than the body, is black and has two pro- 
jections, which appear like the upper parts of a beak. They are placed 
on a level and slightly apart, being used as cutters by the worm to bore 
into the tree. 

This borer attacks windfalls, dead timber, or trees that have been 
killed by fire, and though they do not bore into Douglas Fir as rapidly 
as Eastern Pine, holders of timber limits should, if possible, log off in- 
fected sections without delay, as this borer can bore through one inch 
of Douglas Fir inside of an hour and its destructive work is liable to 
render trees useless in less than a year's time. 



DURABILITY OF WOOD 

Timber cut in spring or in summer is not so durable as that cut in winter, when the life pro- 
cesses of trees are less active. Scientific investigations sustain this statement. The durability 
depends not only upon the greater or less density but eJso upon the presence of certain chemical 
constituents in the wood. Thus a large proportion of resinous matter increases the durability, 
while the presence of easily soluble carbohydrates diminishes it considerably. 

During the growing season the wood of trees contains sulphuric acid and potassium, both of 
which are solvents of carbohydrates, starch, resins and gums; they are known to soften also the 
ligneous tissue to a considerable degree. During the summer months the wood of living trees 
contains eight times as much sulphuric acid and five times as much potassium as it does during the 
winter months. The presence of these two chemical substances during the growing season con- 
stitutes the chief factor in dissolving the natural preservatives within the wood and in preparing 
the wood for the different kinds of wood-destroying fungi, such as polyporus and agaricus. The 
fungi can thus penetrate more quickly and easily into the interior of the wood when these wood 
gums are already partly dissolved and available for their own immediate use. 

From this standpoint it seems that the best time to cat down the tree is in the winter, when 
sulphuric acid and potassium are present to a much smaller degree, and the fungi will not be assisted 
in dissolving the natural preservatives in the wood. The amount of wood gum is always less and 
more easily soluble in sapwood than in heartwood. ^Scientific Americam. 



-55- 



SEASONING OF WOOD 

IMPORTANCE OF PROPER SEASONING METHODS 

Practically all wood before being put to use is either seasoned in the air or dried in a kiln. 
The main objects ot seasoning are to increase the durability of the wood in service, to prevent it 
from shrinking and checking, to increase its strength and stiffness, to prevent it from staining 
and to decrease its weight. The sooner wood is seasoned after being cut the less is the chance 
that it will be injured by the insects, which attack unseasoned wood, or decay before the time comes 
to use it. Wood that is to be treated with preservatives needs in nearly all cases to be seasoned 
as much as wood that is to be used in the natural state. 

Wood has a complicated structure. The walls of the cells of which it is made up shrink and 
harden when moisture is removed from them, and unless timber that is to be air-seasoned is piled 
in the right way, or conditions in the dry kiln are maintained in accordance with certain well- 
defined physical laws, the material is likely to warp or check, or in some way to be damaged seri- 
ously. Until recently proper methods of seasoning received comparatively little attention from 
manufacturers, and large losses, especially among woods that are difficult to dry, were the rule. 
Sometimes as much as 20 or 25 per cent of the seasoned lumber was rendered unfit for the use in- 
tended by defects which had their origin in the drying process. Since the quality of the finished 
product can be impaired seriously by wrong methods, the importance of right methods becomes 
apparent. 

FIBER SATURATION POINT AND SHRINKAGE 

Water exists in wood in two conditions: (a) as free water contained in the cell cavities, and 
(b) as water absorbed in the cell walls. When wood contains just enough water to saturate the 
cell walls, it is said to be at the "fiber saturation point." Any water in excess of this which the 
wood may contain is in the form of free water in the cell cavities. Removal of the free water has 
no apparent effect upon the properties of the wood except to reduce its weight, but as soon as any 
of the absorbed water is removed the wood begins to shrink. Since the free water is the first to 




Fig. 1.— Shrinkage as alTected by diroction of annual rings; approximately twice as great tangentially 

as radially. 



be removed, shrinkage does not begin, as a geneial rule, until the fiber saturation point is reached. 
In the case of eucalyptus and some of the oaks, however, shrinkage begins above this point. For 
most woods the fiber saturation point corresponds with a moisture content of from 25 to .30 per 
cent of the dry weight of the wood. Figure 1 shows graphically the difference between tangential 
and radial shrinkage. 

Shrinkage is due to the contraction of the cell walls, and sets up stresses which tend to cause 
the wood to check. As observed in a cross section of a piece of lumber, shrinkage in the tangential 
direction is about twice as great as in the radial direction; lengthwise of the lumber it is very slight. 

HOW WOOD MAY BE INJURED IN SEASONING 
Checking 

Checking is caused by unequal shrinkage. If the outside of a piece of wood dries consider- 
ably faster than the inside, the surface in time will contract until it can no longer extend around 
the comparatively wet interior, and so will be torn apart in checks. Checks often are classified 
as end checks and face checks. End checking or splitting during seasoning causes nearly as much 
loss as face checking. 

CASE HARDENING AND CHECKING 

Case hardening and honeycombing may be explained thus: Suppose a block of wood is very 
wet, and is placed in a kiln at too high a temperature and too low a humidity. The surface begins 
to dry and tends to shrink, but is prevented from doing so by the wet interior. Being plastic, 
it yields to this resistance and becomes stretched. If not plastic, it will check open. As drying 
proceeds, the surface hardens and sets in an expanded condition, and acts as a strong shell. The 
interior now dries very slowly, does not become set, but shrinks; and as the exterior is already hard, 
it opens up or "honeycombs." When the exterior once becomes set or "case hardened," the in- 
terior is almost certain to become honeycombed, whether the drying takes places in the kiln or a 
long time afterward. The only remedy is to moisten the exterior by steaming or soaking before 
it is too late. Air dried material may also case harden and honeycomb. 

—56— 



SEASONING OF WOOD— Continued 

Warping 

Warping or twisting in lumber is due to unequal shrinkage. Some woods are much more 
subject to warping than others. The trouble can be prevented to some extent by careful piling, 
both during drying and afterward. 

Collapse 

In some woods, notably western red cedar and redwood, when the very wet wood is dried 
at a high temperature, depressions appear on the surface of the boards, presumably due to the col- 
lapse of the plastic cell walls in certain places. If, however, the woods in question are heated above 
the boiling point while wet, the steam generated in the nonporous cells causes the wood to bulge 
on the surface. 



ILLUSTRATION AND EXPLANATION OF 
LUMBER SURFACES 

Wood can be cut in three distinct planes with respect 
to the annual rings. The end surface of a piece of wood 
shows a cross section of the annual layers of growth. 
This is also known as the transverse surface. (See il- 
lustration). It shows the size and arrangement of the 
cells better than any other surface. When wood is cut 
lengthwise through the center or pith of the tree, the 
surfaces exposed are known as the radial, or "quartered," 
surfaces. A longitudinal surface which does not pass 
through the center is known as the tangential, or "bas- 
tard," surface. Plain sawed lumber is tangentially cut. 
Technically, a tangential surface is at right angles to the 
radius. 

A block -of wood showing, Tr, 
tranversc, or end surface; R, radial, 
or "quartered' surface: Ta, tangen- 
tial, or "bastard" surface. 

Radial 

Radial means extending outward from a center or an axis. Thus a radial surface in a tree is 
one extending irom the pith of the tree outward, such as the wide face of vertical or edge grain 
flooring or a quarter sawed board. 

Tangential 

Tangential means tangent to or parallel to the curves of the annual rings in a cross section. 
Thus a tangential surface is a surface perpendicular to the radius of a tree; in other words it is the 
wide face of a slash or flat grain board. 

THE TEREDO 

The Teredo, which is often called a ship worm, in reality is a bivalve mollusk. The body 
is shaped like a worm and in color and appearance it is white, and slimy. The head is of shell with 
two sharp pointed protuberances, with which it cuts away the wood to make its burrow. The 
average length of the body is about five inches, with a diameter of a quarter of an inch, though 
in rare instances it has been known to attain a length of four to six feet, with a diameter of about 
one inch. 





At the posterior end of the body are two perfect feather shaped projections, which appear to 
be made of shell or bone, and there are also two short muscular tubes of same substance as the 
body, with the longer tube it takes in food and water, and the shorter one is used to eject the fine 
wood borings that are made by cutting valves, and swallowed by the Teredo, which bores into 
the wood below the water's surface to obtain a place of shelter. 



-57- 



THE TEREDO— Continued 

The entrance hole made by these marine borers is about the size of a pin's head, and from 
that the diameter inside gradually increases to about a quarter of an inch. 

The Teredo thrives best in very salty, warm and clear viiater and, as it penetrates into the 
wood it secretes a substance that forms a white lining around its burrow; and on arriving at ma- 
turity, which usually takes about four weeks after first entering the timber, the eggs of the female 
are ejected into the water, where they immediately hatch, and in the course of a month appear 
as very minute clams. 

At this stage they seek an entrance into wood that is not protected against their attack, and in 
six months to three years, according to locality, they will honeycomb piling or timbers to such an 
extent that they will be rendered worthless. 

The feather shaped end of the mature Teredo usually projects about a quarter of an inch out- 
side the entrance hole, and if this is broken it will cause their death, as they are very seRsitive. 

Teredoes can only exist in salt water, and when they gain an entrance into wooden vessels 
they can be destroyed by running the infected ship into fresh water. 

The bark on piling is considered an absolute protection against the Teredo, but to be effective 
it must remain intact as these marine borers only require a minute surface to eftect an entrance. 

The Teredo is found along the greater part of the Atlantic and entire length of the Pacific 
Coasts, and is particularly destructive around Puget Sound and the Straights of San Juan de Fuca. 

There are many remedies that can be applied to piling that will temporarily resist the attacks 
of these marine borers, each and every one of which has its particular value, but cost of material 
and distance of transportation to different localities must be taken into consideration when com- 
paring the relative virtues of various remedies, however, it may be stated that for protection 
against the attack of marine borers the full-cell processes, either Bethell, boiling, Boulton or 
steaming method are invariably used because of the necessity of injecting the maximum amount 
of preservative. 

KILN DRYING LUMBER 
SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES 

* The particular method to be used in the proper drying of lumber for different purposes 
varies directly with the class of material to be dried. No one great "process" has ever been de- 
vised that will meet all conditions. 

Green and unseasoned lumber contains moisture that exists in the wood in two forms: as 
free water in the cell cavities, and as absorbed moisture in the cell walls. The proportion of free 
water in the cavities of the cells of the sap-wood is such that in a freshly cut log these cells are 
usually almost completely full. In the heart-wood, however, the cell cavities are relatively empty, 
containing, in the case of such conifers as Douglas fir and pine, less than ten per cent of water. 
So long as free water is found in the cell cavities, the cell walls are necessarily saturated. In the 
case of Douglas fir the amount of water required to saturate the cell walls amounts to, roughly 
twenty-five per cent of the dry weight of the wood. 

In kiln drying wood, the water should be evaporated from the cavities of the cells before any 
water is removed from the cell walls. The removal of this water does not cause the wood to 
shrink; no shrinkage can take place until further drying causes the evaporation of moisture from 
the cell walls. 

If the first or primary evaporation is carefully controlled, the heat applied to the wood causes 
the cell walls to acquire a certain degree of plasticity, so that when the drying has progressed to 
such a point that water is removed from the cell walls their plastic condition permits the wood to 
shrink without checking. 

It follows, therefore, that in kiln drying lumber it should first be heated through and through 
in an atmosphere as completely saturated with moisture or steam as possible; in fact, partially sea- 
soned lumber should first be steamed by opening the spray pipes in the kilns before steam is ad- 
mitted to the heating system, so that the preliminary drying will not cause the over-drying or 
case-hardening of the cell walls at the surface of the lumber. This preliminary seasoning does not 
en the "pores" of the wood. Wood is not made up of an accumulation of clam shells, but is 
rather simple cellular structure. There are no pores that can be opened and closed through 
any mysterious property of saturated steam. 

Heat, and heat only, is available as a medium in removing moisture from wood. In a dry 
kiln the heat is applied to the lumber through the medium of air or superheated steam. Other 
gases, such as carbon dioxide, could as well be used, were it not for the cheapness and availability 
of air or steam. In drying lumber for creosoting, heat is carried to the lumber from a heating 
system such as is used in a dry kiln, but instead of surrounding the lumber with air, it is kept im- 
mersed in hot creosote oil until it is dry. 

The first requisite in drying lumber is a kiln-building that is tight — one that is built in such a 
manner that the moist air that surrounds the lumber cannot escape to the atmosphere through 
holes or leaks in the ceiling of the kiln. Unless the kiln building is properly constructed, drying 
conditions within the kiln are beyond the control of the operator. 

The free water is most readily removed by heating the wood in an atmosphere highly satur- 
ated with moisture. The application of heat to the wood causes the vapor pressure within the 
cells to rise to high point, an internal pressure of as much as 10 to 15 pounds per square inch being 
developed. All of the moisture in the lumber can be evaporated in this manner, but after the 
free water has been removed this method of drying becomes inefficient, and the moisture content 
of the air in the kiln should be reduced, at first gradually, and then in proportionately greater in- 
crements. In this way lumber can be dried rapidly and yet with a minimum amount of checking. 
If the lumber is dried in a "Super-Speed" kiln, the same result is obtained when the temperature 
within the kiln is increased to a point above the boiling point of water, 212 degrees fahrenheit. 

Efficiency in drying demands the proper circulation of air or steam in the kiln. The air or 
steam should be circulated through the heating coils to the lumber at a rate that is proportional 
to the capacity of the lumber to absorb the heat. Too rapid circulation will result in the over- 
drying of the surface of the lumber, unless the temperature within the kiln is reduced to such a 
point that the heat is used in a very inefficient manner. 

* From literature courteously supplied by the North Coast Dry Kiln Company, Seattle, Wash. 

—58— 



oF 



KILN DRYING "COMMON" LUMBER 

One of the greatest problems confronting the western manufacturer of lumber is the disposal 
of common grades of lumber. Freight rates to eastern markets are very high and will always 
remain high. The kiln drying of common grades is the only possible manner in which the Coast 
manufacturer can reduce the weights on lumber in an economical manner. 

Due to the climatic conditions that exist west of the Cascade mountains in British Columbia 
Washington and Oregon, and west of the Sierra Nevadas in California, very little can be gained' 
by air seasoning. Air seasoning normally reduces the moisture content of lumber to a minimum 
of only 18 to 20 per cent, and during the greater portion of the year lumber stacked in the yard 
seassns only very slowly. Air seasoning is also expensive, and for this reason common lumber 
is usually shipped in a green and unseasoned condition. 

The following items account for the high cost of air seasoning in this region: 

1. Interest on the capital perpetually invested in the lumber piled in the yard. 

2. Cost of piling and unpiling the lumber stacked in the yard. 

3. Interest on the capital perpetually invested in item No. 2. 

4. Cost of maintenance of foundations for lumber piles, runways, docks, fire-fighting equip- 

ment, tractors, lumber dollies and other necessary equipment. 

5. Interest on money invested in item No. 4. 

6. Interest on money invested in yard space. 

7. Cost of insurance on lumber piled in yard and upon yard equipment. 

8. Interest upon perpetual investment in item No. 7. 

9. Taxes. 

10. Loss through degrading of material stacked for seasoning. 

The above items render the cost of air-seasoning lumber so high, that the gain in lower ship- 
ping weights on air seasoned lumber, if a careful accounting system is kept, will be overshadowed 
by the cost of seasoning the lumber in the yard. One-inch Douglas fir lumber stacked for sea- 
soning in the middle of August will usually reabsorb so much moisture during the winter months 
that minimum shipping weights cannot be obtained until twelve months have elapsed. Lumber 
stacked in May can, on the other hand, be shipped in September. As a general average it can 
be said that fairly reasonable shipping weights can only be obtained after lumber has been stacked 
eight months or more. 

The side-cut of mills in the Douglas fir region, or the common lumber, is therefore very com- 
monly shipped in a green condition, and even in the case of mills that make an attempt to air 
season this material, a considerable amount is shipped unseasoned. 

Timbers, which are always cut to special orders, must necessarily be shipped without seasoning. 
The shipping of other grades in this condition amounts to nothing less than a sheer wanton waste 
of money. 

According to data prepared by the West Coast Lumbermen's Association, under existing 
freight rates the delivered prices of 2x4's at middle western and eastern points represent: 

Freight paid to railroads _. 61 % 

Money received by the saw mill 39% 

Our friends in the Southern Pine region are more fortunate. Railroad hauls are short and 
freight rates are low. Lumber stacked in the mill-yard of the sunny south seasons very rapidly. 
Negro labor, very cheap and fairly efficient, and a ten-hour day, reduce the cost of piling and un- 
piling in the yard, so that air seasoning brings a reasonable good return. The delivered prices 
of similar material from the South therefore represent the following items: 

Freight paid to railroads 37 % 

Money received by the saw mill 63% 

The most superficial sort of an analysis of the above percentages demonstrates beyond any 
possibility of error that there is but one single manner in which this terrific handicap upon the 
western shipper can be overcome. Low prices of lumber at the mill simply increase the handi- 
cap or "freight-percentage." The cutting of scant sizes will decrease the freight-percentage but 
will prove an insurmountable obstacle to the extension of West Coast markets. 

The drying of common dimension to a definite moisture content is the one existing possibility. 
Approximately a fifth of the money paid to the railroad companies by the western manufacturers 
of lumber is paid for the privilege of shipping water with the lumber. The consumer of lumber 
does not care for this high priced water; in fact, he is willing to pay a little more for dry lumber 
that is clean and bright. 

During the past ten — yes, fifteen — years, this "talk" of drying common dimension lumber 
has been heard by the Western lumberman. Common lumber has been dried at more than one 
mill, quite successfully, and yet — 

There is an explanation for this condition of affairs, and a good explanation, too. When 
lumber prices were high, mills made money. When prices slumped, this money was promptly 
lost. When lumber prices were high, the drying of common seemed unnecessary. When prices 
slumped, no money was available for "experimenting." 

Today, however, conditions are different. The drying of common dimension is no longer an 
experiment. A real, genuine solution to the problem of reducing the freight-percentage has been 
found. 

"Super-Speed" Drying as a Solution 

The fact that common grades of western woods can be successfully and quickly dried, with 
a negligible loss through degrading, has been completely established. As common grades can be 
brought to a lower shipping weight than is possible through air seasoning in twenty-four hours — 
an even day — the investment in dry kilns is relatively very small. A tremendous decrease in 
handling costs, made possible through the use of North Coast automatic edge stackers and un- 
stackers, combined with mechanical handling devices leading to a dry storage shed, also scores 
heavily in emphasizing the advantages of the "Super-Speed" method of handling and preparing 
common grades of lumber for shipment. 

One item must not be overlooked. As the lumber can be piled "solid" in the dry-shed, com- 
paratively little space is required. Again, the lumber can be brought to a definite shipping weight, 
and when it is unloaded in the yard of the eastern retailer it will be bright and clean, no mold and 
mildew covering the lumber and carrying the insinuation that our western woods do not possess 
the virtue of superior durability. 

In shipping five ordinary carloads of green lumber to eastern points, the western manufacturer 
pays the freight on a tank-car of water. The useless waste of money in such freight shipments 
will very quickly absorb the cost of equipping a typical mill with "Super-Speed" kilns. 



TO DETERMINE MOISTURE CONTENT OF LUMBER 

Definition: The moisture content of a piece of lumber is the amount or weight of moisture 
as compared with the bone dry weight of the piece. This would be the weight of the water divided 
by the bone dry weight. 
Example: 

Weight of sample of green sap hemlock 85.23 grams 

Weight of sample bone dry 37.61 



Weight of water in green sample 47.62 grams. 

Moisture content of green sample equals 47.62 divided by 37.61 equals 1.26 equals 126%. 

Method: Cut off about one foot of the end of a board and discard it. Then cut a sample 
about one inch long across the board and weigh it to hundreds of a gram on your scale. Place 
the sample in a small electric oven and hold at 212 to 215 degrees. Weigh the sample at intervals 
until it stops losing weight at which point it has become bone dry. The difference between the 
original weight and the bone dry weight is, of course, the weight of the water that was in the 
sample. This weight of water divided by the bone dry weight as stated above is the moisture 
content. 

Actual Practice: Suppose we have a car of lumber we think is about ready to come out 
of the kiln. Or if it is a single charge kiln we believe the lumber is about dry: Remove three 
or four boards from the kiln, cut a foot off one end of each and obtain a one-inch sample and weigh 
it. Dry this, as previously explained, bone dry. Comparing with the previous example: 

Weight of sample of kiln dried lumber 40.62 

Weight of sample bone dry 37.61 

Weight of water 3.01 

Moisture content of kiln dried sample equals 3.01 divided by 37.61 equals .08 equals 8 %. 

The proper moisture content of kiln dried lumber for ordinary commercial purposes is 8 % 
to 10 %. By checking up the moisture content at regular intervals you will establish a schedule 
of temperature, humidity and time of drying for your kiln, whereby you can depend on the moisture 
content of your lumber. 

THE PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF WOOD WITH SPECIAL 
REFERENCE TO DOUGLAS FIR 

* The importance of properly preparing wood for preservative treatment is not always realized. 
The moisture content or sap in green wood is resistant to the penetration of preservatives, prin- 
cipally because it fills the cellular structure of the wood fiber thus occupying the volumetric spaces 
into which the preservative must be injected. This moisture content must be reduced in volume 
or consistency before it can be replaced by the preservative. There are four common methods 
by which this can be accomplished and the method adopted depends somewhat on the kind and 
condition of the wood to be treated: 

1. Air seasoning, or exposing the wood, properly stacked, to the action of the open air by 
which the moisture in the wood is gradually evaporated. 

2. Placing the wood in a kiln and drying out the moisture by application of hot air, regulating 
the temperature and humidity so that the wood fiber is not injured. 

3. Placing the wood in the usual treating cylinder or retort and applying steam followed by 
vacuum to dry out the moisture, carefully regulating the pressure and time to prevent injury to 
the wood fiber. 

4. Placing the wood in the retort, filling the retort with a hot oil preservative and boiling 
under vacuum to keep the temperature at a point which will not injure the wood fiber. 

A fifth method of preparing wood for treatment was made available for general use when 
the perforating patent held by Mr. O. P. M. Goss of Seattle was dedicated to the public on October 
6, 1919. This method consists in puncturing all exposed surfaces of the wood with sawtooth holes 
scientifically spaced both across and along the grain and so arranged that the punctures form 
diagonal lines. Experiments in this method have been carried on since 1913 and the results have 
proved to the satisfaction of most of the leading experts in wood preservation that perforating or 
incising before treatment will accomplish the following results: 

1. Control, reduction, or complete elimination of checking in green ties and timber if per- 
forating is done promptly after cutting. 

2. Reduction of the temperature required to secure satisfactory impregnation. 

3. Reduction of the time required to treat ties and timber in the retorts. 

4. A complete and uniform penetration of the preservative to the depth of the perforations 
or incisions. 

5. Reduction of not over eight to ten per cent in the strength of the tie or timber in com- 
pression perpendicular to the grain. This means a reduction of the present loss in the strength 
and mechanical life of the treated unperforated ties or timber, which varies from 30% to 40 %, 
to a point which will balance the cost of treatment to the satisfaction of the demands of engineers. 

The application of perforating to timbers subjected to loading in tension or shear must wait 
for the results ot scientific experiments on the effect of the punctures upon the tensile and shearing 
strength of the timber. 

The mechanical application of the perforating process has so far been confined to cross ties 
and dimension timbers but there is reason to believe that eventually some mechanical device will 
be designed which will be able to perforate round, tapering sticks such as piling and poles. 

* By Edmund M. Blake, Production Engineer for Chas. R. McCormick & Co., St. Helens 
Creosoting Co., St. Helens, Wash. 

—60— 



PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF WOOD— Continued 

It may be stated as probably representing the concensus of expert opinion in the wood pre- 
serving industry that the ideal preparation of wood for treatment is perforation as promptly as 
possible after cutting, followed by a reasonable period of air seasoning because by this method 
the cellular structure of the wood will be best prepared to receive and retain the preservative ma- 
terial. Such a preparation involves not only additional expense but necessitates the purchase and 
proper storage of green material several months ahead of the time at which the wood is to be treated 
and used, the interest on which investment must be added to the cost. 

The following fundamental considerations should be noted in the preparation of wood for 
treatment: 

1. The wood which is to be kept in storage yards before treatment should be stacked on 
well drained ground free from vegetation. This will prevent the growth of fungi. In arid local- 
ities, the piles should be less open than in humid regions in order to avoid severe checking. 

2. If any length of air seasoning is to be given, the wood should preferably be cut during 
the winter, as spring and summer are the better seasoning periods. 

3. The greater the surface area of a piece of wood in comparison to its volume, the more 
quickly will it dry. 

4. Timber which has to be cut, adzed, bored, notched, tapped or morticed during its erection 
should always be so framed before treatment. Otherwise surfaces will be exposed which are not 
protected by any of the preservative and the treatment of the particular stick will be nullified. 

.5. All wood placed in any one retort for treatment should be in as nearly the same condition 
of seasoning as possible in order to insure uniform treatment for every part of each charge. Care 
should be taken not to place green timber and well seasoned timber in the same charge. 

6. Wood that is apt to split or check severely while seasoning should be protected by driv- 
ing S irons or irons of other shapes into the ends of the sticks. 

7. The bark must always be removed before treatment. 

WOOD PRESERVATIVES 

The two preservatives in most common use are creosote oil and zinc chloride. With 117 
treating plants operating in the United States in 1916, the consumption of creosote was about 
90,500,000 gallons and the consumption of zinc chloride about 26,750,000 pounds. With only 
107 treating plants operating in 1918, the consumption of creosote dropped to about 52,750,000 
gallons while the consumption of zinc chloride increased to 31,000,000 pounds. The figures for 
1919 are not available but the amount of creosote used is known to have been much less than in 
1918, and it will probably be even less during 1920 than it was in 1919. This is partly accounted 
for by the very extended use of coal tar in the United States for fuel during the war, the elimi- 
nation of the German supply, and the great reduction in the British supply, coupled with the high 
prices for both domestic and foreign creosote. The situation is such this year that most of the 
railroads of the United States will continue a very large use of zinc chloride in the treatment of 
cross ties, holding their depleted creosote supplies for piling and bridge timbers. 

In addition to creosote and zinc chloride there are some forty or more other preservatives, 
the use of which in 1918 amounted to over 4,000,000 gallons. Among the most important of these 
are carbolineum, carbosota, corrosive sublimate and sodium fluoride, the latter of which has re- 
ceived particular attention during the past two years. 

Zinc chloride solution is made from fused or solid zinc chloride which must be acid free, con- 
taining at least 94% soluble zinc chloride and not more than 0.1 % iron. The concentrated solu- 
tions, from which the treating solutions are made, should contain at least 50 % soluble zinc chloride. 

As zinc chloride is soluble in water its tendency is to leach out more or less from the timber 
treated with it if the surroundings are moist or damp. Its most effective use is in dry, arid climates. 
Common practice in the past with some railroads has been to use one-quarter of a pound zinc 
chloride per cubic foot of material treated, but, on account of its tendency to leach and thereby 
lose its effectiveness, the best modern practice calls for one-half pound per cubic foot. 

The most common use for zinc chloride solution and the one by which its greatest efficiency 
is probably secured, is in the treatment of railroad cross ties, particularly in areas of low rainfall 
and long dry periods. It is also used when low first cost is essential. 

The creosote oil used in the preservation of wood is derived from the destructive distillation 
of coal gas or coke oven tar and consists of the fractions coming off between 200 degrees and 400 
degrees C. Aside from this fundamental requirement, the American Railway Engineering As- 
sociation and the American Wood-Preservers' Association recognize three grades of creosote oil 



which differ from each other principally in fractions distilling up to 235 degrees C. The highest 
grade of distillate creosote oil, grade No. 1 or standard grade, contains the smallest percentage 
of the low boiling fractions and if grades No. 2 or No. 3 are used, careful consideration should be 
given to the advisability of injecting a greater quantity per cubic foot than in the case of grade 
No. 1. In all three grades the oil must contain not more than 3 % of water, not more than 0.5 % 
of matter insoluble in benzol and not more than 2 % of coke residue; the specific gravity must not 
be less than 1.03 at 38 degrees C. compared with water at 15.5 degrees C, the specific gravity of 
the fraction between 235 and 315 degrees C. must not be less than 1.03 and between 315 and 355 
degrees C. not less than 1.10 and the residue above 355 degrees C. must be soft. 

In the best modern practice the highest grade of distillate creosote oil is specified for the pro- 
tection of piling and timbers to be used in salt waters subject to the attack of marine borers and 
the quantity injected per cubic foot must be sufficient to give a minimum penetration of at least 
three-quarters of an inch of creosote. Grades No. 2 and No. 3 are used principally in land work 
as compared with marine work. 

There is also a standard specification for creosote-coal-tar solution for cross ties and struc- 
tural timbers of which at least 80 % must be distillate oil and the remainder refined or filtered coal 
gas tar or coke oven tar. This solution has a higher specific gravity and a greater coke residue 
and is applicable to inland work and railroad cross ties. 

There is also a standard specification for coal-tar-oil for paving blocks of which at least 65 % 
must be a distillate and the remainder refined coal gas or coke oven tar with still higher specific 
gravity and still higher coke residue. 

It is also believed by several of the leading experts connected with railroad treating plants 
that a mixture of 50% distillate creosote oil with 50% of crude oil will make a solution entirely 
satisfactory to the treatment of railroad cross ties. 

—61— 



PENETRATION 

The penetration of preservative is a subject which does not always appear to be clearly under- 
stood by users of treated wood. Penetration is governed not only by the pressure and temperature 
maintained in the retorts and by the length of treatment but is also and fundamentally dependent 
upon the cellular structure of the wood itself. The viscosity of creosote oil is an important factor 
of the amount of penetration which can be obtained and recent tests made at the Forest Products 
Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin, have established the fact that a very definite relationship 
exists between viscosity and penetration. Penetration will increase with a decrease in the vis- 
cosity of the oil. High temperatures in the retorts will reduce the viscosity of oil and therefore 
tend to increase the penetration. If the pressures and temperatures are kept too high the fiber 
of the wood is injured with a resulting loss in the mechanical strength of the wood. If the period 
of treatment in the retorts under pressures and temperatures otherwise satisfactory is too long, 
the same injury results to the fiber of the wood. If the cellular structure of the wood is such that 
the preservative can be injected through the walls of the cells under reasonable pressure, temper- 
ature and length of treatment, satisfactory penetration can be secured without injury to the me- 
chanical strength of the wood. On the other hand, there are woods, notably Douglas fir, whose 
cellular structure in the heartwood is so greatly and variably resistant to the injection of pre- 
servative that the penetration specified often cannot be secured without maintaining high pressures 
and temperatures and long periods of treatment in the retorts with the consequent danger of in- 
jury to the mechanical strength of the wood itself. 

Furthermore, the quantity of preservative per cubic foot of treated wood required to secure 
a definite penetration is governed by the relation between the surface area and the volume of the 
wood to be treated. For example, if an injection of twelve pounds of creosote oil per cubic foot 
will result in a penetration of three-quarters of an inch on the four sides of a 12x12 timber, the 
same quantity jier cubic foot injected into one-inch boards will give less than one-quarter of an 
inch penetration. This inverse relation which penetration bears to the surface-volume percentage 
of wood treated under a specified injection of preservative per cubic foot is too seldom recognized 
in the drawing up of treatment specifications. For example, when a specification for the treat- 
ment of one-inch boards calls for twelve pounds of creosote oil per cubic foot with complete pene- 
tration of the boards, something is being called for which cannot be accomplished in actual practice. 




Perforated Not Perforated 

PENETRATION OF CREOSOTE IN TWO PIECES OF SAME DOUGLAS FIR CROSS TIE 
Both treated in same charge during experiments in 1916. 

This subject of penetration brings up the consideration of Douglas fir and it is really Douglas 
fir in the treatment of which engineers west of the Rocky Mountains are most vitally interested. 
Douglas fir is practically the only kind of treated timber used for piling on the Pacific Coast and, 
aside from a small quantity of western yellow pine, is the only kind of timber treated in the form 
of cross ties and lumber on the Pacific Coast. Very large quantities of Douglas fir are used an- 
nually in the mines of California, Nevada and Arizona. It is the most refractory wood commonly 
used today in the resistance of its cellular structure to the penetration of preservative in the heart- 
wood. Not only is the heartwood of Douglas fir refractory but its resistance to penetration varies 
on different surface areas in the same stick. In some cases, even under standard treatment, the 
penetration may exceed three-quarters of an inch over parts of the surfaces while over adjoining 
areas there may be nothing more than a "painting" of the surface. It is not surprising, therefore, 
that the development of perforating before treatment should have been carried on with Douglas 
fir on the Pacific Coast. In fact, it was the desire of the Santa Fe as far back as 1912 to use treated 
Douglas fir cross ties that first led to the study of the possibilities of securing an even penetration 
by perforating before treatment. That a predetermined depth of penetration may be definitely 
secured by preliminary perforation is assured and the first perforating machine for ties and timbers 
to be designed at the shops of Greenlee Hros. & Company, Rockford, Illinois, is now completed 
and in operation at the plant of the St. Helens Creosoting Company, St. Helens, Oregon. A 
series of very careful scientific experiments are now being conducted partly in connection with 
commercial orders, and it is expected that very important data will be collected during the next 
few years. Special tests will also be made on structural timbers which will be subjected to tension 
and shear to determine the effect of perforating upon their tensile and shearing strength. 

Where sapwood is present in Douglas fir piling, cross ties or lumber, it is generally possible 
to secure full penetration to the depth of the sapwood under temperature, pressure and time of 
treatment conditions which will not injure the mechanical strength of the wood. All sapwood 
should be fully treated wherever it occurs in any event as it is that portion of the wood which is 
first affected by decay. In drawing up specifications for the treatment of Douglas fir heartwood 
in any form, including piling where the depth of sapwood is not specified, the following factors 
should be clearly kept in mind by the engineer: 

—62— 



PENETRATION— Continued 

1. Penetration secured by high temperatures and pressures or by long periods of treatment 
may result in serious injury to the mechanical life of the wood. 

2. A predetermined depth of penetration cannot be guaranteed in the heartwood of Douglas 
fir or other woods without preliminary perforating. 

3. The depth of penetration for a given injection of oil per cubic foot depends upon the re- 
lations between the exposed surface and the volume of the wood; i. e., it will take more oil per cubic 
foot to secure full penetration in one-inch boards than it will to secure three-quarters of an inch 
penetration on the four sides of a 12x12 stick. It is also true that it will take more oil per cubic 
foot to secure a specified penetration in a stick 8 inches in diameter than in a stick of larger diameter. 
The dual requirements, often counter-posed in the same specifications, calling for both a definite 
injection and a definite penetration of the preservative, are too frequently irreconcilable. There- 
fore, unless the depth of sapwood is specified or perforating is called for in the treatment of Douglas 
fir, it is more consistent to specify the minimum amount of injection and both the minimum and 
average penetration desired. 

4. Furthermore, it has been the almost universal practice to call for prices per lineal foot of 
treated piling while specifying an injection in pounds per cubic foot and at the same time stating 
the minimum diameters of butt and top and the minimum penetration. This is a practice which 
it appears could be easily changed to the mutual benefit of both the purchaser and the treating 
contractor by employing the same unit for specified injection and price in addition to providing 
for the correct relation between specified penetration and specified injection. 

For example, take a specification calling for a twelve pound treatment, ^4 inch penetration, 
14 inch minimum butt, 8 inch minimum top and piling 60 feet long. If the piling has those exact 
butt and top diameters with a uniform taper, the cubical contents will average 0.68 cubic feet per 
lineal foot and one pile will contain 40.8 cubic feet which will call for 489.6 pounds of creosote. 
If the treating contractor could get piling all of which had the minimum butt and top specified, 
with an even taper, the difficulty caused by the present form of this part of the specification would 
be largely removed but this is practically impossible. The treating contractor must therefore guess 
at what the piling received will over-run in cubical contents. For the piling in the above example 
he might figure 0.75 cubic feet to the lineal foot and base his quotation on the oil required for that 
case. When the piling is delivered at his plant for treatment, it may be found that the cubical con- 
tents run as high as 1.00 cubic foot or more to the lineal foot which means a loss to him while the 
purchaser gets a larger pile than he pays for under the contract. The basic difficulty lies in the 
fact that the piling contractor will not agree to furnish exact butts and tops unless he is paid a 
higher price for that selection out of the piling cut. 

Now consider the second phase of the problem. Assume for the moment that the specified 
penetration can be obtained. As penetration bears an inverse relation to the surface-volume per- 
centage of wood treated under a specified injection of preservative per cubic foot, the penetration 
in piling under a specified injection of creosote per cubic foot is governed by the diameter of the 
piling because the smaller the diameter the greater will be the percentage which the surface area 
per lineal foot of piling bears to its volume per lineal foot and hence the less the depth of pene- 
tration. An injection of 12 pounds per cubic foot will give a greater penetration at the 14 inch 
butt than it will at the 8 inch top but if the average diameter is used in determining the amount 
of oil required, proper penetration will be provided for all parts of the stick. 

Therefore, it would be more consistent with the facts, eliminate the confusion resulting from 
the use of different units in present specifications and be fairer both to purchaser and treating 
contractor to specify the minimum injection in pounds of creosote per lineal foot of piling for each 
variation of 1 inch in the average diameter of the piling actually treated. The purchaser first 
of all must have a specified minimum penetration and secondly cannot wish to obtain it at a loss 
to the treating contractor. A condensed tabular form would simplify such a specification and not 
complicate quotations and the injection specified for a desired penetration should be consistent 
with the results possible to obtain in the treatment of Douglas fir. 

MODERN METHODS OF TREATMENT 

The modern commercial methods or processes commonly used in the preservation of wood 
are divided into two general classes, the first being non-pressure processes and the second pressure 
processes. The results obtained from the use of non-pressure processes are not comparable with 
those obtained from the use of pressure processes and it should be understood that the former 
are makeshifts and not to be considered in the same class with the latter. 

NON-PRESSURE PROCESSES 

Non-pressure treatments coat the wood with a superficial absorption only and the best re- 
sults are obtained only when thoroughly seasoned wood is used. 

The oldest and simplest form of this method consists in applying the preservative with a brush, 
using as many coats as may be considered desirable and requiring a container to hold and in which 
to heat the preservative. 

When the wood to be preserved is in place and brushing is inconvenient, spraying is some- 
times used as an alternative but the waste of preservative has prevented general use of this method 
of application. 

The penetration resulting from the two above methods is very slight. 

Another method consists in dipping the wood in hot or cold preservatives in open tanks in which 
the wood is left to soak up all that it will absorb. This results in a greater penetration than can 
be obtained by brushing or spraying. 

The best method of non-pressure treatment is that of placing the wood in hot preservative 
for a proper length of time, then removing it and plunging it into cold preservative. A hot bath 
of from one to two hours followed by a cold bath of the same period is usually enough. This re- 
sults, when properly manipulated, in fairly good penetration and is used extensively for the butt 
treatment oi poles and posts. Where only small lots of material are to be treated and the chance 
of abrading or splitting the treated wood is reduced to a minimum, this process is economical for 
certain classes of material. It may be noted that the open tank non-pressure process has been 
used very extensively in the study of the penetration of creosote oil into the cellular structure of 
Douglas fir from which undoubtedly the early conclusions were reached that some form of per- 
foration would have to be employed in preparing Douglas fir for satisfactory treatment. 

—63— 



PRESSURE PROCESSES 

The general pressure method of impregnating wood with preservative is in cylinders which 
range in size from 72 inches in diameter and 42 feet in length to 108 inches in diameter and 172 
feet in length. The pressure process is now the almost universal method of treating wood and is 
always used where large quantities of material are to be treated and a deep penetration of the pre- 
servative is to be obtained. After the wood to be treated has been placed in the cylinders or re- 
torts and the retorts have been hermetically sealed, the preservative is forcibly injected into the 
wood by means of pressure produced by pumps and accompanied by more or less high temperatures 
produced by steam coils laid in the retorts. 

The pressure processes are divided into two classes, the first being full-cell treatments which 
force into and leave in the wood practically all the preservative it will hold where penetrated, 
thereby giving a maximum protection against decay or attack by animal life for the depth of pene- 
tration secured; the second being empty-cell treatments which reduce materially the final re- 
tention of the preservative in the cells while not reducing the depth of penetration. In both of 
these treatments it is clearly seen how important it becomes to remove the moisture or sap from 
the cells in order that they may be filled with the preservative. The full-cell treatment, as its 
name implies, leaves the cells filled with the preservative while in the empty-cell treatment the walls 
of the cells are left coated with preservative. 

Either green or seasoned timber may be treated by pressure processes but when green timber 
is put into the cylinder it is generally seasoned by steaming at a pressure of from 90 to 100 pounds 
per square inch or boiled in the preservative which is heated by means of steam coils. In both 
cases a vacuum is used to draw the moisture content from the wood. In the case of Douglas fir 
the boiling is carried on under vacuum in order to reduce the injury to the wood fiber. This 
boiling under vacuum process is not used anywhere except on the Pacific Coast but has been found 
to be the most satisfactory form of treatment for Douglas fir. 

The modern pressure processes used in the United States are as follows: 

BETHELL OR FULL-CELL PROCESS 

Briefly — a preliminary vacuum of at least 22 inches maintained until the wood is as dry and 
as free of air as practicable. Creosote oil introduced without breaking the vacuum and the pressure 
gradually raised and maintained at a minimum of 125 pounds per square inch until a satisfactory 
quantity of preservative is injected into the wood. The temperature of the preservative during 
the pressure period shall be not less than 170 degrees F. nor more than 200 degrees F. and shall 
average at least 180 degrees F. After pressure is completed and the cylinder emptied of preser- 
vative, a final vacuum shall be maintained until the wood can be removed from the cylinder free 
of dripping preservative. Green timber is sometimes subjected to live steam bath at about 20 
pounds pressure before preliminary vacuum. 

LOWRY OR EMPTY-CELL PROCESS WITH FINAL VACUUM 

Briefly — the preservative is introduced into the cylinder at not over 200 degrees F. The 
pressure is then raised and maintained until there is obtained the largest practicable injection 
that can be reduced to the required final retention by a quick vacuum. After pressure is completed 
the cylinder is speedily emptied of preservative and a vacuum of at least 22 inches promptly created 
and maintained until the quantity of preservative injected is reduced to an average of 6 to 8 pounds 
of creosote per cubic foot. The air imprisoned in the cellular structure by injecting oil without 
preliminary vacuum is expanded during the final vacuum forcing out a certain amount of oil with it. 

RUEPING OR EMPTY-CELL PROCESS WITH INTERNAL AIR PRESSURE AND FINAL 

VACUUM 

Briefly — after the material is placed in the cylinder it is subjected to air pressure of sufficient 
intensity and duration to provide under final vacuum the evacuation of preservative necessary 
to secure the required retention. The preservative is then introduced, air pressure being main- 
tained constant until cylinder is filled. The pressure is then gradually raised to at least 150 pounds 
per square inch and held until all sapwood and as much heartwood as practicable are saturated. 
Temperature of preservative during pressure period must be not less than 170 degrees F. nor more 
than 200 degrees F. and shall average at least 180 degrees F. After pressure is completed the cylin- 
der is speedily emptied of preservative and a vacuum of at least 22 inches is promptly created until 
the material finally retains an average of at least 5 pounds of creosote oil per cubic foot. 

BURNETT OR ZINC CHLORIDE PROCESS 

Briefly — the material is steamed in a cylinder for one or two hours at a pressure of about 
20 pounds. A preliminary vacuuna of at least 22 inches is maintained until the wood is as dry 
and as free from air as practicable. Condensate is drained from cylinder and preservative intro- 
duced without breaking vacuum. Pressure is raised and maintained at a minimum of 125 pounds 
per square inch until the timber has absorbed K pound of dry zinc chloride per cubic foot. Tem- 
perature during pressure period shall be not less than 130 degrees F. nor more than 190 degrees 
F. and shall average at least 150 degrees F. Strength of zinc chloride solution shall not exceed 5 %. 

STEAMING OR COLMAN PROCESS 

Jriefly — the timber is first steamed at a pressure of 90 to 100 pounds for 3 to 10 hours. The 



steam is then released and a vacuum drawn until the timber is considered seasoned, the temper- 
ature within retort during vacuum usually being maintained above 200 degrees F. Creosote oil 
is injected at a maximum pressure of 100 to 150 pounds until the desired absorption is obtained. 

Referring briefly to the uses to which these various processes are put, it may be stated that 
for protection against the attack of marine borers the full-cell processes, either Bethell, boiling, 
Boulton or steaming method, are always used because of the necessity of injecting the maximum 
amount of preservative. For protection against decay and white ants where marine borers are 
not present, empty-cell processes, Rueping or Lowry method, are commonly used because it is 
not necessary to have a maximum retention of preservative for protection against decay although 
a maximum penetration is essential. Water soluble salts are also effective against white ants. 

The Burnett and Card processes are commonly used where a saving in first cost is desirable 
or necessary. There was a time when the low cost of untreated ties and the labor of placing them 
in the track, combined with the low cost of these two processes, resulted under certain conditions 
in a lower annual charge for track maintenance than would have resulted had the ties been treated 
by the more expensive oil processes. However, the rising cost of timber and labor, combined with 
the increased cost of preservatives, has extended largely the conditions under which the use of oil 
treatments may be economically adopted. 

—64— 



PRESSURE PROCESSES— Continued 

CARD OR ZINC CHLORIDE AND CREOSOTE OIL PROCESS 

Briefly — the method used is the same as that in the Bethell or fall-cell process and it is custo- 
mary to inject about Yi pound of zinc chloride and 2 to 3 pounds of creosote oil per cubic foot. 
The mixture of zinc chloride and creosote oil is kept agitated during treatment by means of a 
rotary pump which draws the mixture from top of retort and returns it at bottom through a per- 
forated pipe. 

BOILING PROCESS 

Briefly — creosote oil is introduced into cylinder at about 160 degrees F. and heated to 225 
to 250 degrees F. at atmospheric pressure, the vapors being passed through a condenser. Heat- 
ing is continued until the rate of condensation falls to 1/6 to 1/10 of a pound of water per cubic 
foot of wood per hour. The cylinder is then filled with cool oil allowing the temperature to fall. 
Pressure is then applied from 120 to 150 pounds until the desired injection of preservative is ob- 
tained. 

BOULTON OR BOILING UNDER VACUUM PROCESS 

Briefly — creosote oil is introduced into cylinder, heated to 190 to 210 degrees F., subjected 
to a vacuum and the escaping vapors passed through a condenser. Heating and vacuum are con- 
tinued until the rate of condensation falls to 1/6 to 1/10 of a pound of water per cubic foot of wood 
per hour. The vacuum is then discontinued and the necessary pressure applied and maintained 
until the desired injection of preservative is obtained. The object of the vacuum during boiling 
is to evaporate the water from the wood at a lower temperature than in steaming or straight boil- 
ing processes which results in less injury to the fiber of the wood. 

SERVICE DATA 

Based on high grade timber carefully selected and on scientific treatment carefully carried 
out with the proper quality of preservative. 

Douglas Fir 
Piling — in waters infested with marine borers. 

U ntreated^life from 4 to 9 months up to 15 to 18 months, depending upon severity of the 
attack. 

Treated witli Creosote — life from 25 years up. 

In Oakland Long Wharf — 20 to 29 years, approximately 71% still sound when removed. 

In the L. & N. R. R. bridge across the Ohio River at Henderson, Ky. — 34 years. Pile tops 
cut before treating and caps entirely covered pile tops; approximately 75 % still sound when removed. 
In dock at Port Bolivar on Galveston Bay — 40 years. 

Lumber 

Untreated — life from 4 to 12 months, in waters infested with marine borers. 

Treated with Creosote — as long as the mechanical life of the wood. The use of untreated 
fenders or cross-brading, when attached to treated material below high water is bad practice be- 
cause the teredo, growing to an adult form in the green material, is not then stopped by the creo- 
sote protection of the treated material. 

Cross Ties 

Untreated — life from 4 to 8 years, depending upon the climatic conditions under which they 
are used. The life is longest in dry, arid regions. White oak, which gives the best results of any 
untreated tie, has a life of about 9 years; yellow pine, 7 to 8 years; inferior woods, 2 to 5 years. 

Treated with Zinc Chloride — average life about 14 years. 

Treated with Creosote under the Rueping Process — protected against decay for the full 
mechanical life of the wood which may exceed 20 years. 

The Rueping process allows the use of the minimum amount of creosote necessary to protect 
the tie throughout its mechanical life. 

Creosoted Baltic pine ties in France have been in service for over 26 years. 

SUMMARY 

For comparative purposes and with a degree of accuracy which may be depended upon in de- 
ciding upon investment in treated material the following statements are called to the attention 
of users of wood: 

1. Properly creosoted Douglas fir piling cost four to five times as much as green piling and 
will give a life protected against marine borers from 25 to 40 times longer. 

2. Properly creosoted Douglas fir lumber will cost from .3 to 4 times as much as green lumber 
and will give a life protected against marine borers and decay from 10 to 15 times longer depending 
upon its mechanical life. 

3. Properly zinc chloride Douglas fir cross ties will cost about 40% more than the green ties 
and give about twice the service; while Rueping creosoted Douglas fir cross ties will cost about 
80 % more than the green ties and give about three times the service, depending only upon the 
mechanical life of the wood. 

In all cases, to get maximum service, every reasonable precaution must be taken in erecting 
treated material and in maintaining the same not to injure in any way the seal of preservative. 

In conclusion, the cost of preserving wood against injury and destruction by decay, marine 
borers and white ants, even at the high level of prices existing today, which will probably never 
recede to the prewar level, is fully justified by the increased service from the treated material 
thereby assured and if treating specifications, so varied and tending to confusion today, can be 
standardized along scientific lines, the interests of both purchaser and treating contractor will 
be harmonized to the mutual benefit of each. Investment in properly treated material is a wise 
and far-sighted policy when forest products are to be used in railroad cross ties, switch ties and 
bridge timbers, in piling and all kinds of lumber required in water-front construction, in poles, 
fence posts, paving block for outside and inside use, wood pipe staves, budding sills and all lumber 
in contact with the ground, culverts, drain boxes, highway bridges, mining timber for above ground 
or under-ground construction and in all those forms of iidand construction where air, moisture 
and heat expose the wood to fungus attack. 

If there is a difference between the average life of untreated wood used under specific conditions 
of destructive fungus or marine borer action and its possible life of mechanical usefulness under 
conditions in which those destructive forces are inactive, then preservative treatment is advisable. 
The extent of increased life which can be obtained by treatment that is necessary to balance the 
mechanical life of the wood used then becomes the determining factor in deciding whether the 
investment shall be for a temporary or permanent form of .preservative treatment. 

—65— 



PERFORATING TIES BEFORE TREATMENT 

In view of the increasing demand for treated ties, it is believed that the importance of a 
proper preparation of ties for preservarive treatment is sufficient l-o justify the publication at this 
time of a brief statement on the mechanical application and results of the so-called "perforating 
process." This method of preparation preliminary to treatment consists in puncturing all the 
exposed surfaces of the wood, except the ends, with saw-tooth holes scientifically spaced both 
across and along the grain and so arranged that the punctures along the longitudinal axis of the 
tie form diagonal lines. More accurately speaking, this method should be called the "incising 
process," inasmuch as the punctures penetrate to a depth of about seven-eights of an inch into 
the surface of the wood and do not actually "perforate," or pierce through the wood. 

The spacing of the holes is such that a complete and uniform penetration of the preservative 
to the depth of the incisions may be expected to be secured within reasonable ranges of temperature 
and time of treatment in the retorts. The proper spacing of the puncturing teeth on the machine 
may likely be found to vary for different kinds of wood. It is believed that a minimum depth 
of about three-fourths of an inch for the incisions will meet the most rigid demands for protection 
of the tie against decay. 

Perforating, or incising, preliminary to treatment has been developed because heartwoods 
were encountered which were so refractory in their resistance to the injection of preservative, due 
to the nature of their cellular structure, that it was practically impossible to secure satisfactory 
penetration of the preservative, at least not without serious injury to the mechanical strength of 
the timber caused by the higher temperatures and excessive length of treatment required in the 
retorts in order to get any reasonable penetration. The method is also of great value in the prepar- 
ation of sapwood ties for treatment. 

While the experiments on this method have been largely conducted in the Pacific Northwest 
on Douglas fir, the process will apply equally as well to the heartwood of any kind of timber. It 
is also applicable to lumber for practically every use, such as sheathing, bulkheading, pontoons, 
marine railways, bracing, mining timbers, cross arms, sewer outfalls, culverts, etc. It is possible 




VIEW OF ONE OF THE FOUR TOOTHED ROLLS OF THE GREENLEE PERFORATING 

OR INCISING MACHINE 

Showing set screw arrangement for adjusting rows of teeth 

also that machinery may later be devised which will make it practicable to perforate, or incise, 
round tapering sticks, such as poles and piling. Its application to structural timbers for use in 
bridges and buildings in which the beams are subjected to loading in tension or shear, can only 
be settled after a thorough investigation of the effect of the punctures upon the tensile and shearing 
strength of the timber. 

Experiments on cross ties since 1913 have shown that preservative treatment after perforat- 
ing, or incising, results in an ultimate reduction of not over 8 per cent to 10 per cent in the strength 
of the timber in compression perpendicular to the grain. Without preliminary perforating, or in- 
cising, the temperatures and length of treatment necessary to secure a satisfactory penetration 
in heartwoods was such that the reduction in strength ran from 30 per cent to 40 per cent. 

Machinery for applying the perforating, or incising process to cross ties and dimension timber 
has recently been designed and built by Greenlee Bros. & Company of Rockford, Illinois, makers 
of the adzing-boring-branding machines, and the first machine so constructed has been in service 
at the plant of the St. Helens Creosoting Co., St. Helens, Oregon, since September 21, 1920. 
Briefly describing this machine, it has a massive main frame on which are mounted four rolls or 
drums, two horizontal and two vertical. The diameter of all these drums is 14>^ inches. The 
top horizontal drum and one of the vertical drums is flexible and adjustable mounted to provide 
for variations in tie and timber sizes and to permit of a rocking or tilting position to allow for ties 
of more or less irregular form. These two drums are fitted with heavy coil springs with tension 
adjustment. 

The maximum size capacity of the machine for ties and timber is 8 inches in thickness and 
14 inches in width, the minimum thickness to which it will work being 3 inches and the minimum 
width 6 inches. It will therefore perforate, or incise, material varying from 3"x6" to 8"xl4". 
The machine is driven by a 15 H. P. motor and has a speed of about 70 lineal feet per minute which 
will permit the perforating, or incising, of about eight ties 8 feet in length per minute or, at this 
rate, of about 3,800 ties in eight hours. The ties and timber go through the machine much as in 
the case of a planer. 

—66— 



PERFORATING TIES BEFORE TREATMENT— Continued 

To summarize briefly, it is expected that perforating, or incising, before treatment will ac- 
complish the following results, applicable to both heartwood and sapwood: 

1. Control, reduction or complete elimination of checking in green ties and timber if per- 
forating is done promptly after cutting. This will be a very important accomplishment expecially 
in the case of ties to be transported long distances or stored for air seasoning before treatment. 

2. Reduction of the temperatures required to secure satisfactory impregnation. This will 
reduce the injury to the fiber. 

3. Reduction of the time required to treat ties and timber in the retorts. This will reduce 
the loss in mechanical strength. 

4. A complete and uniform penetration of the preservative to the depth of the perforations. 

5. Reduction of not over 8 to 10 per cent in the strength of the timber in compression per- 
pendicular to the grain. The present loss in the strength and mechanical life of treated unper- 
forated ties or timber varies from 30 to 40 per cent. 

The economy in the use of perforated treated ties, is therefore, obvious and this is all the 
more important in view of the recent report of a committee of the Roadmasters' & Maintenance 
of Way Association made at St. Louis in September, 1920, which recommended the use of treated 
ties for the following reasons, as quoted from Railway Maintenance Engineer of October, 1920: 

1. The conservation of timber. 

2. Reduction in the number of tie renewals. We all fully realize the cost of such work under 
present labor conditions. 

3. More time for general maintenance. 

4. Lessened disturbance of the roadbed, which insures better surface and alinement at a 
reduced cost. 

We also find, on account of the scarcity of tie timber many kinds of inferior wood are being 
used with satisfactory results when treated. 

GRAND FIR— WHITE FIR 

Grand Fir (Abies Grandis) is a closely allied variety of White Fir (Abies Concolas) therefore 
for all practical purposes, a description of one serves for both. 

WHITE FIR 
(Abies Concoior) 

White Fir is a massive tree and generally averages from 140 to 200 feet in height, with a 
diameter of 40 to 60 inches. 

WEIGHT 

When green the lumber is very heavy, and butt logs often sink in water. The wood naturally 
contains a large percentage of moisture, but after a thorough seasoning boards one inch in thick- 
ness will weigh about 2,000 pounds to 1,000 board feet. 

THE WOOD 

The wood is soft, straight grained and works easily. It is only used or suitable for a light 
class of construction work or temporary mining purposes. In color it is whitish-gray to light in- 
distinct brown. The sawn product closely resembles Hemlock in appearance, but it is inferior 
to it for finish or construction. White Fir should on no account be classed or confused with Douglas 
Fir (Pseudotsuga Taxifolia) which botanically is not a Fir, and the wood of which is entirely dif- 
ferent and vastly superior to that of the White Fir. 

More than half of the total output of White Fir is supplied by California, and approximately 
10 per cent each by Washington, Idaho and Oregon. Small quantities are produced in Montana, 
Colorado and other Rocky Mountain States. 

ITS USE FOR PULPWOOD 

Experiments conducted at the Forest Service laboratory at Washington show that this wood 
is admirably adapted for the production of paper pulp by the sulphite process. The wood is found 
to yield very readily to the action of the sulphite liquor used, which is of the usual commercial 
strength, viz., about 4.0 percent total sulphur dioxide, 1.0 per cent combined and 3.0 per cent 
available. The length of treatment has varied in the different tests from eight to ten hours, and 
the steam pressure from 60 to 75 pounds. These pressures correspond to maximum temperatures 
of 153 to 160 degrees C. 

The pulp produced in these experiments is from nearly white to light brown in color, accord- 
ing to the variations in the method of cooking, and by selecting the proper conditions of treatment, 
it would be readily possible to produce a grade of fiber which could be used in many kinds of paper 
without the least bleaching. If, however, it is desired to employ the fiber for white book or writing 
papers, it could be readily bleached to a good white color. 

Results of laboratory tests show that the bleach required to bring the fiber up to the usual 
color for bleached sulphite spruce fiber is from 15 to 23 per cent to the weight of unbleached fiber; 
that is, assuming the bleaching power to contain 35 per cent available chloride. Sulphite spruce 
fiber now on the market requires from 175 to 500 pounds of 35 per cent bleach per ton of product 
or from 9 to 24 per cent of the unbleached fiber. It is seen, therefore, that so far as bleaching is 
concerned, the pulp made from white fir is just as good as that made from spruce. 

The yields obtained in these experiments ranged from 43 to 49 per cent on the bone-dry basis. 
This is exclusive of screenings, which in no case exceed 1^ per cent of the dry wood used. From 
careful observation of the methods employed in determining the yields, it seems probable that 
those figures will be increased slightly when larger quantities of wood are used, and it is believed 
that in the matter of yield the Fir wood is fully equal to spruce. 

The fiber from these cooks is in most cases light colored and somewhat lustrous, and the 
sheets formed from it without any beating are remarkably tough and strong. Microscopic ex- 
amination and measurements show that the fibers are of very remarkable length, being from one- 
half to two-thirds as long again as the commercial sulphite spruce fiber. 

It is believed from the results that, so far as the product is concerned, the manufacture of 
fiber from white fir would be a commercial success, and that the fiber produced would find its great- 
est usefulness in the production of manilas where great strength is required, and in tissues which 
need very long fibers. It seems probable, also, that it would make very good neswpaper, for 
which purpose its naturally light color would particularly adapt it. 



CALIFORNIA REDWOOD 

(Sequoia Sempervirens) 
DESCRIPTION 

Redwood is lumber from the "big trees" of California — the Eighth Wonder of the World. 
Scientists call them Sequoia sempervirens, which, when translated into our every-day tongue, 
means "Sequoia ever-living." Sequoia is an Indian name; the name of a chief of great power 
and influence among his people. It was natural, therefore, for the Indians to name the giant 
trees after their most powerful chief. 

They are wonderful trees. Their living power is without peer among perishable and animal 
life. The secret of their great age is resistance to rot and fire, and practical immunity to the at- 
tack of insect life and fungus growth so destructive to most other kinds of wood. In the forests, 
the Redwoods have fought decay and fire down the sweep of many centuries — they lived on sturdy 
and strong while other forest trees matured and died in successive crops. 

RANGE 

By a freak of nature the Reflwoods grow nowhere else in the world but in California. Their 
range is confined to a strip along the Pacific Coast north of San Francisco Bay to the Oregon State 
line, and extending inland not more than 10 to 20 miles. The principal stand of commercial lum- 
ber today is in the three north coast counties of Mendocino, Humboldt and Del Norte. Their 
growth ranges from the sea level to an altitude of 2500 feet. 

YIELD 

The Redwoods grow in what is known as the "fog belt," and thrive only in excessive mois- 
ture. There are millions of trees, and estimated by the Government to contain between 50,000,- 
000,000 and 60,000,000,000 board measure feet of lumber — more than enough to keep all the saw- 
mills now cutting Redwood busy day and night for 100 years. The Redwoods grow big and dense, 
yielding on an average from 75,000 to 100,000 board feet of commercial lumber per acre. There 
are quite a number of instances where the Redwoods grow so dense and so big that a single acre 
has yielded more than 1,000,000, board feet of lumber. 

HEIGHT 

The Redwood forest is one of the sublimities of nature. The massive trees, with their 
straight trunks covered with cinnamon-colored bark and fluted from the base to the apex of the 
tree like a Corinthian column, are as impressive as the cold, silent walls of an ancient cathedral. 
They grow from 5 to 25 feet in diameter, and from 75 to 1500 feet in height. The great size and 
height of these trees can best be appreciated when it is known that, if hollowed out, one of the large 
Redwoods would make an elevator shaft for the famous Flatiron Building in New York; in height 
it would tower 50 feet above the torch of the Statute of Liberty in New York Harbor! They are 
so large that a single tree has produced enough lumber to build a church at Santa Rosa, California, 
that will seat 500 people. 

The enormous logs make it necessary to use the most powerful and expensive logging ma- 
chinery. Many of the large logs must be split with gun-powder before they can be handled on 
the saw carriage at the mill. It is not uncommon for a butt log (the first cut above the ground) 
to weigh from 30 to 50 tons, according to the diameter of the tree. The butt cut is usually 16 
feet in length. 

ROOT FORMATION 

One of the strange things about the Redwoods is the root formation, which is slight in com- 
parison with the size of the tree. Redwood actually has an insecure footing. There is no tap root 
to push straight down into the earth to give the tree stability. The roots radiate a few feet below 
the surface of the soil. It is supposed they protect themselves by dense growth. The floor of the 
forest is covered with a luxuriant growth of magnificent ferns and beautiful rhododendrons. 

THE BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA 
DESCRIPTION 
The Sequoia gigantea, or Sequoia washingtonia, as the United States Forest Service 
refer to them, are the "big trees" of the tourist. They are first cousins of the Redwoods. Geo- 
logists assert that they are the lone living survivors of all plant and animal life that existed before 
the glacial age. The few remaining trees are confined to an area of about 50 square mUes on the 
western slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, in central California, and of which the Yosemite 
Valley is a part. Many of these trees are 4000 years of age— and sone bold scientists have estimated 
one to be from 8000 to 10,000 years old! They are located in an altitude of from 4000 to 7000 feet 
above sea-level, and bear evidence of having passed maturity and are in their decline. If the 
decline lasts proportionately as long as it took the trees to reach maturity, they are still good for 
untold centuries. These "big trees" are found only in protected valleys and spots in the moun- 
tains, indicating the cause of their survival of the glacial upheaval. 

—68— 




CALIFORNIA REDWOOD 
(Sequoia Sempervirens) 



—69— 



REDWOOD— Continued 

THE GRIZZLY GIANT 

The "Grizzly Giant" in Mariposa Grove, Yosemite Park, is 91 feet in circumference at the 
ground, and its first branch, which is 125 feet from the ground, is 20 feet in circumference. The 
"General Sherman" is 280 feet high, 103 feet circumference at the ground, which means a diameter 
of 36K feet, and at a point 100 feet from the ground it is 17.7 feet in diameter. These are two 
of the most noted of the "big trees." 

The "big trees" of California afford an inexhaustible reservoir of information for the scientist 
who reads this story of the past by the study of the annular growth. By means of this he is able 
to determine the season and locate with a degree of definiteness climatic conditions and changes 
on the Pacific Coast as far back as 4000 years agol 

SAP 

Sap is always white. Some manufacturers make a specialty of turning out a "sappy clear" 
grade. Lumber of this description shows a streak of white along one edge and presents a nnost 
beautiful contrast between the red and white in the wood. This "sappy clear" is highly prized 
for interior finish. 

COLOR AND GRAIN 

In color Redwood shades from light cherry to dark mahogany; its grain is straight, fine and 
even. The color and grain present in combination a handsome appearance. It runs strong to 
upper grades, and phenominal widths, sometimes as wide as 36 inches, entirely free from check 
or other defects. 

PAINTING AND POLISHING 

Redwood is easily worked, and when properly seasoned it neither swells, shrinks, nor warps — 
it "stays put," and being free from pitch takes paint well and absorbs it readily. The dark color 
of the wood makes three coat work necessary, since the priming coat must be mixed extremely 
thin to fully satisfy the surface. It also takes a beautiful polish, especially if given two coats of 
shellac and then a wax finish on top. 

INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR FINISH 

For doors, windows, pattern or panel work, wainscoting, ceiling, casing, shelving, moulding 
and every description of interior or exterior finish the finest results can be obtained. For in- 
terior finish Redwood should not be painted any more than you would cover oak or mahogany. 
Redwood's beauty for interior finish lies in its individuality, its soft, warm tone and color pos- 
sibilities. 

QUALITY 

Redwood is the most durable of the coniferous woods of California and possesses lasting 
qualities scarcely equalled by any other timber. Although very light and porous, it has antiseptic 
properties, which prevent the growth of decay producing fungi. So far as is known, none of the ordi- 
nary wood rotting fungi grow in Redwood timber. This is an exceedingly valuable properly 
which should extend the use of this wood for all kinds of construction purposes. 

DURABILITY 

For tanks, stave water pipe, poles, posts, paving blocks or foundations, it will last almost 
indefinitely under the trying conditions of being placed in contact with the ground and subject 
to alternate wet and dry conditions. 

For exterior boarding, finish and shingling, whether painted or not, its durability in thousands 
of instances has been demonstrated to be very great. 

PATTERN WORK 

Leading engineering and shipbuilding works in California have been using Redwood for 
pattern work during the past twenty-five years, as it works easily and time has proved that it 
retains its shape as well as any other wood used for this purpose. 
CAR MATERIAL 

Redwood is in great demand for all kinds of finish for car material. Its special recommenda- 
tions for this class of work are its durability and well known fire resisting qualities. Examinations 
of car siding in use for twenty years have failed to show traces of dry rot or any other form of 
decay. 

The hardest service to which wood can be subjected is the railway tie. 

It is not only in constant contact with the ground, but it must stand the strain and stresses 
of swiftly-moving heavy trains. In his report on "Timber, An Elementary Discussion of the 
Characteristics and Properties of Wood," to the Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, Filbert Roth, special agent in charge of timber physics, gives the following table on 
THE RANGE OF DURABILITY IN RAILROAD TIES 

Redwood 12 E1-" 6 to 7 

Black Locust 10 Long Leaf Pine 6 

Oak (white and chestnut) 8 Hemlock 4 to 6 

Chestnut 8 Spruce 5 

Tamarack 7 to 8 Red and Black Oaks 4 to 5 

Cherry, Black Walnut Locust 7 Ash, Beech, Maple 4 

To get best service out of the Redwood tie under heavy equipment, tie plates should be used. 

Redwood ties are in big demand in South America, England and the continent, Australia and 
the Orient, because of its resistance to decay and resistance to attack of destructive insects so 
common in the tropical countries. 

HOLDING OF SPIKES 

Respecting the "holding of spikes" Redwood ties compare favorably with all other ties ordi- 
narily classed as soft wood. 

—70— 



CALIFORNIA REDWOOD GRADES 

Adopted April 5, 1917, by California Redwood Association 

San Francisco, California 

Copyright 1917 

SPECIAL NOTES 

1. All worked lumber shall be measured and invoiced for contents before working. 

2. All rough lumber unseasoned shall allow an occasional variation equivalent to 1/16 of an 
inch in thickness per inch and 1/32 of an inch in width per inch. 

3. All rough lumber seasoned shall allow a variation equivalent to 3/32 of an inch in thick- 
ness per inch. 

4. All rough lumber seasoned shall allow a variation in width as follows: 

6-inch and less, yi of an inch in width. 
8, 10 and 12 inch, yi of an inch in width. 
14-inch and wider, H of an inch in width. 

5. Surfaced lumber will be H of an inch less for one side and 3/16 of an inch less for two 
sides. Rustic, T. & G., T. G. & B. will be 3/16 of an inch less for one side and ^ of an inch less 
for two sides. (Above less than rough thickness.) 

6. Grain of all grades shall be as the lumber runs. 

7. Worked lumber to be in accordance with patterns adopted by California Redwood Asso- 
ciation, April 5, 1917. 

KNOTS 
In these Grading Rules, knots are classified as sound, loose and soft. 

A Sound Knot, irrespective of color, is solid across its face, as hard or harder than the wood 
it is in, and so fixed by growth or position that it will retain its place in the piece. 
A Loose Knot is one not held firmly in place by growth or position. 
A Soft Knot is one not so hard as the wood itself. 

GRADES 
Uppers 

(Under the heading of Uppers shall be included all Redwood of a grade higher than 

Extra Merchantable, including Clear, Sap, Select, Standard, Pickets, Battens, etc.) 

Clear: Shall be good and sound, free from knots, shakes or splits. Will allow a reasonable 
amount of birdseye, and sap not exceeding four per cent of the area of all the surfaces. A fair 
proportion in each shipment may contain pin knots showing on one face only. 

Sap Clear: Shall conform generally to the grade of clear, except that it may contain any 
amount of sap. Discolored sap, when sound, shall not be considered a defect. 

Select: Shall be good and sound, free from shakes or splits. Shall be graded from the face 
side and will allow birdseye and one small, sound knot one inch in diameter or its equivalent in 
each six superficial feet. In the absence of other defects, will allow one soft knot one-half inch 
in diameter in each six superficial feet. Sap allowed not exceeding four per cent of the area of all 
the surfaces. 

Standard: Shall be graded from the face side and will allow birdseye, any amount of sap, 
and in each six superficial feet, two sound knots not exceeding an inch and a quarter in diameter, 
or their equivalent. In the absence of sound knots, will allow one soft knot one inch in diameter 
or its equivalent in each six superficial feet. 

Clear, Sap Clear and Select Worked: Shall be well manufactured and worked smoothly 
to uniform thickness. Will admit of slight roughness or variation in milling, and defects men- 
tioned under grades of Clear, Sap Clear and Select. 

Standard Worked: Will admit in addition to stock of regular Standard Grade, Clear, Sap 
Clear, and Select, which, owing to poor machinery, is unsuitable for these grades. 

SUNDRY COMMONS 

(Under the heading of Sundry Commons shall be included Extra Merchantable, Mer- 
chantable, Construction, Shop, etc.) 

Extra Merchantable: In one inch shall be free from shakes and splits. Will admitTany 
number of sound knots but not more than one knot two and a half inches in diameter in each five 
superficial feet, and small, soft knots that do not materially affect the strength or usefulness of the 
board. Will allow sap not exceeding ten per cent of the area of all the surfaces. 

In dimension Extra Merchantable shall consist of sound lumber free from shakes, large loose 
knots, or such other defects as would materially impair its usefulness. Will allow sap not ex- 
ceeding ten per cent of the area of all the surfaces. 

Extra Merchantable Rustic and Shiplap: This grade shall conform to the grade of Extra 
Merchantable, except that Sap in any amount shall be allowed. 

Construction: Shall be suitable for ordinary construction. Will allow sap, loose andTsoft 
knots, shakes and other defects, and splits not extending over one-sixth the length of the piece. 

Merchantable: This grade is recommended for general building purposes. It consists of 
sixty per cent Extra Merchantable and not to exceed forty per cent Construction. 

Shop: There shall be but one grade in Shop. 

Inch Shop: Each piece shall contain not less than fifty per cent of cuttings five inches and 
wider and three feet and longer, having no defects except sap. 

Inch and a Quarter to Two-Inch Shop: Each piece shall contain not less than fifty per cent 
of two face clear cuttings, exclusive of sap, five inches and wider, and of this fifty per cent of clear 
cuttings forty per cent shall be suitable for door stiles six feet seven inches and longer. 

Two and a Half Inch and Thicker Shop: Shall contain sixty per cent of clear cuttings five 
inches and wider and two feet and longer. 

REDWOOD AND THE TEREDO 

The Teredo will attack and destroy Redwood piles or timber as quickly as any other wood. 

—71— 



REDWOOD SHINGLES 

Redwood shingles as a roof or side wall covering give long life and fire protection. 

No other shingle, or substitute roof covering gives the ideal combination of rot resistance and 
fire retardance, with the additional merit of being rust proof and free from tar, gum or any other 
substance to melt in the sun and fill gutters, water pipes or drains. 

Always lay Redwood shingles with zinc-coated cut iron nails. This will prolong 
the life of your roof many years. The ordinary steel shingle nail will rust out while 
the shingle itself is still in first-class condition. A Redwood shingled roof, laid with 
the right kind of nails, will give satisfactory service from 30 to 50 years. 

You can buy Redwood shingles in two grades. No. 1 Clear and Star A Star. The former is 
a carefully selected vertical grain shingle, free from all defects, and is used invariably on coverings 
where service demands first consideration. The latter is a 10-inch clear butt shingle, "slash" 
grain being no defect, and it is recommended for side walls rather than for roofing. 

In 1893 Redwood shingles were taken from the roof of General U. S. Grant's headquarters 
at Fort Humboldt, California, where they had been for 40 years. The wood was absolutely sound 
and without a trace erf rot, although the shingles were worn thin by wind-driven sand. 

REDWOOD AND THE WHITE ANT IN INDIA 

In reports to the Canadian Trade and Commerce Department, Ottawa, Ontario, from the 
Director of the Commercial Intelligence Service, India, it is stated that where California Redwood 
has been used for railway sleepers (ties) in an untreated condition that the white ant has made 
short work of them. 

FIRE RESISTING QUALITIES 

Redwood, owing to its freedom from pitch, will not ignite easily nor make a hot fire when 
burning and is very easily extinguished. 

It is an actual fact that fires have been extinguished in Redwood buildings with compara- 
tively slight damage, when the same fire would have made practically a total loss had the build- 
ings been constructed of pine or cedar. The reason is plain. Redwood is not slow in combustion, 
but absorbs moisture readily and when moistened, resists fire wonderfully. 

REDWOOD LATH 

Redwood lath have given most satisfactory service for many years, the fire-retarding prop- 
erty of Redwood giving lath of this material a decided advantage over the ordinary kinds. For 
best results the rough coat of plaster should be allowed to dry thoroughly before applying the 
finish coat. 

GROWS STRONGER WITH AGE 

Redwood actually grows stronger with age! This has been demonstrated by tests made at 
the University of California. Timhers taken from a house built 37 years ago, on the Campus 
of the University, at Berkley, were tested and found to be actually stronger than the day when 
the building was erected. There wasn't the slightest trace of decay in these timbers, and when 
sawn the wood was virile and healthy in color and texture. Air seasoning had taken place under 
the most favorable conditions. 

The 37-year Redwood had a longitudinal crushing strength one-quarter greater 
than Redwood which had been air seasoned two years. 

WEIGHT OF REDWOOD LOGS 

Butt logs absorb so much moisture that tlie first and second cuts usually sink in water. Left 
in the sun they require three to four years to dry. 

A STRONG WOOD FOR ITS WEIGHT 

Seasoned Redwood is one of the strongest woods for its weight. Dry Redwood weighs 26.2 
pounds per cubic foot— slightly less than Cypress, which weighs 27.6. It is equal in strength to 
Cypress, and its breaking strength, according to U. S. Government figures, is 62 per cent of that 
of White Oak, which is one of the strongest and toughest of American woods. 

The standard of lumber weight and measure is based on a "board-measure" foot. A board- 
measure foot means a piece one inch thick and 12 inches square. One-inch boards, in the rough, 
dry, weigh 2400 pounds per 1000 board-measure feet. The same boards dressed smooth on two 
sides would weigh 2000 pounds, and if dressed four sides will weigh 1800 pounds. 

WEIGHT OF REDWOOD FOR EXPORT CARGO SHIPMENTS 

"Green" Redwood for cargo shipment weighs about 5 pounds per board foot. A simple 
method for computing the shipping weight is to multiply the board feet by 2.2 per thousand, this 
gives the weight in tons of 2240 pounds. 

The weight in tons of 2240 pounds of seasoned redwood boards is computed by multiplying 
the board feet by 1.1 per thousand. 

Redwood is frequently shipped to Foreign Ports in conjunction with Douglas Fir cargoes. 
In steamer shipments it is customary to stow "green" Redwood first in lower hold and dry Red- 
wood in the Bridge space. Shelter deck or 'Tween decks. Douglas Fir is loaded last in the balance 
of space under deck and on deck. The object of combining Redwood and Douglas Fir cargoes 
is to balance the weight so as to carry the maximum amount of cargo with a minimum of water 
ballast. 

Under ordinary circumstances a combined cargo with weight of lumber correctly balanced 
and stowed should only require one-third the amount of water ballast that would be necessary 
with a straight cargo of Douglas Fir. 

Redwood immersed in salt water or otherwise exposed to its action will gradually blacken 
on the surface and for this reason it should not be shipped on deck unless precautions are taken 
to protect it from the elements. 

The exact proportion of green and seasoned Redwood and Douglas Fir to obtain the best 
results cannot be given as so much depends on the specifications type of vessel and intelligent 
stowage. 

The following proportions will give good results under usual circumstances for an ordinary 
tramp steamer. 

20 % of cargo Green Redwood 
15% " Dry Redwood 

65 % " Douglas Fir. 

If pickets or lath are not available for stowage, about 5 % of cargo in Redwood doorstock 
would be a good substitute. 



WESTERN RED CEDAR 

(Thuja Plicata) 

This cedar is by far the largest of the four true cedars in the world. Since ancient times 
cedar has been famous for its resistance to decay and its remarkable durability. Western Red 
Cedar combines these qualities in the highest degree. The wood is exceptionally light, soft, and of 
close straight grain, making it easy to handle and work. It is free from pitch. Its qualities render 
it free from warping, shrinking or swelling. 

Western Red Cedar is unsurpassed by any other wood where durability, lightness of weight 
or ease of working are essential. It also is an excellent wood for exterior siding, finish, corru- 
gated decking and porch flooring, battens, porch columns, newels, lath, common boards, flume 
constructions, drains, canoes, rowboats, trellis-work, hothouse frames and sash, and for all other 
purposes in which the material used is exposed to the weather or comes in contact with damp 
soil. Cabinet makers use it for many purposes, including the backs and sides of drawers, shelves, 
boxes, and partitions. 

From Western Red Cedar is made sixty-six per cent of all wooden shingles used in the United 
States. The red cedar shingle satisfies architecture's basic requirement of combining, utility, 
durability and beauty. 

Western Red Cedar shingles are not a fire-hazard. 

The life of a Western Red Cedar shingle roof is determined by the life of the shingle nail used. 
Such a roof put on with an old-fashioned iron nail coated with pure zinc should last from thirty 
to forty years. A soft bright wire nail, on the other hand, is sometimes eaten out by the decay- 
resisting chemicles in the wood so that the life of the roof is greatly shortened. The same applies 
to the use of the so-called galvanized shingle nail, which, however, may resist the chemical action 
of the wood for from eight to ten years. 

A Western Red Cedar roof will not rot, rust or corrode. Its light weight saves expense in the 
whole structure of the house. Such a roof is not torn off by wind or storm. It will not require 
constant up keep and painting. It is noiseless during heavy rain and hail storms. It is a non- 
conductor of heat and cold. It is easily put on. 

RED CEDAR SHINGLES 

The standard length of shingles is 16 inches. The expression 6 to 2 and 5 to 2 means that 
the butt ends of 6 and 5 shingles, respectively, equals 2 inches in measurement. One bunch con- 
tains 25 double courses. One double course contains 10 pieces estimated at 4 inches wide. Four 
bundles are reckoned to the thousand. 

Though it is customary to compute shingles as averaging 4 inches in width, the ordinary 
16 inch Western Red Cedar Shingle contains random widths and the average piece runs close 
to 8 inches wide. 

One thousand feet log scale will make ten thousand shingles. When shingles are shipped 
by vessel, freight is usually paid at the rate of 10,000 shingles being equal to 1,000 feet Hoard 
Measure. 

One thousand shingles can be stowed in a space equal to 10 cubic feet. 

To estimate the number of shingles required for a roof when laid 4 inches to the weather, 
multiply the number of square feet of roof surface by 9. 

It is easy to see why the foregoing rule is correct. Each shingle is 4 in. wide and 4 in. only 
of its length are left exposed, hence it covers 16 sq. inches, or 1/9 of a square foot — 9 shingles will 
cover a square foot. 

Estimators usually allow 1,000 shingles to each 100 square feet of roof surface. 

To find the number of shingles equal to 1 square foot: 

When laid 4 inches to weather, multiply by 9. 
When laid 4>^ inches to weather, multiply by 8. 
When laid 5 inches to weather, multiply by 7 1/5. 
When laid 6 inches to weather, multiply by 6. 

APPROXIMATE WEIGHT 

1000 shingles, kiln dried, weigh 160 pounds. 

1000 shingles, green, weigh 200 to 240 pounds. 
To find approximate amount of shingles that can be loaded in a box car, ascertain the ca- 
pacity of car in cubic feet, add two ciphers to this amount and the result will be the number of 
shingles required. 

—73— 



RED CEDAR SHINGLES— Continued 
THE SQUARE PACK 

Adopted by the Shingle Branch of the West Coast Lumbermen's Association, 
Seattle, Wash. 

In the interest of uniformity and standardization of the shingle product, the West Coast 
Lumbermen's Association has adopted the "square" pack and on February 1st, 1921, issued revised 
rules governing the grading and packing of Red Cedar Shingles. 

The standard of packing all 16 inch shingles is set forth as a bunch having twenty double 
courses, which, based on a 5 inch weather exposure, insures a covering capacity of twenty-five 
square feet per bunch. Four such unit bunches will cover one hundred square feet of surface. 
Five such unit bunches will contain exactly the same number of lineal inches of shingles as were 
contained in the former "thousand" unit. 

This adjustment means a strictly uniform unit bunch. 

And it means that no matter whether a dealer desires to sell by the thousand or by the square, 
the unit bunch composing each will be strictly identical on all 16 inch shingles. 

The covering capacity (twenty-five square feet) based on a 5 inch weather exposure will be 
stamped on each bunch. This insures the same ease of estimating that has always been claimed 
for the "square" unit. And it also insures a uniform basis of estimating for such dealers as quote 
and estimate on the "thousand" basis. 

With the gradual, yet positive, improvement that has been made in the grade of shingles 
under five years of Rite-Grade inspection, a 16 inch shingle can now safely be laid five inches to 
the weather, insuring an even better roof covering than was possible with the former uncertain 
grade of shingles produced without any inspection laid with a lesser weather exposure. 

The shingle branch has gone strongly on record against the manufacture and use of a 6 to 2 
shingle for permanent roofing purposes. It knows that it is this type of shingle that has permitted 
inroads on shingle business by substitute forms of roofing material. 

The shingle branch will conduct a vigorous educational campaign in behalf of the 5 to 2 and 
thicker shingle for roofing purposes, to the end that the 6 to 2 grade may be dropped from the 
Rite-Grade grading specifications at as early a date as possible. 

Rut the shingle branch also realizes that approximately 40 per cent of the trade at present 
uses a 6 to 2 shingle almost exclusively, and that to discontinue this grade prior to the education 
of the trade to the merits of the thicker shingle would be fair neither to such retail trade nor to the 
manufacturers of the 6 to 2 shingle. 

Accordingly action has been taken by the shingle branch board of trustees holding in abeyance 
both the discontinuance of this grade and the use of the Rite-Grade trade-mark thereon until such 
time as in its opinion such discontinuance will not work a material hardship either on the dealer 
who has handled this grade of shingles principally, or on the manufacturer who has his trade es- 
tablished on this grade exclusively. 

Rut perhaps the most important results of this recent adjustment will be that a great many 
more mills and a greatly increased percentage of the shingle production will be placed under the 
supervision of strict Rite-Grade inspection. This can have no other result than greatly raising the 
standard of shingle grades, which in turn is the basis of price stabilization. 

It will mean a great extension of advertising for red cedar shingles, both to the consumer and 
to the dealer, thus better acquainting the public with the real merit of shingles as a roofing and 
siding material, and making their sale by the dealer a much easier thing. 

It will mean an association of the shingle manufacturers of such strength that they will be 
better able to cope with the problems that may confront the industry and to remedy many of the 
evils that now exist. 

COVERING CAPACITY 

On all 24 inch shingles, the covering capacity showing 33}^ square feet based upon a lyi inch 
weather exposure and J^ inch spacing, must be shown on each bunch. 

On all 18 inch shingles, the covering capacity showing 25 square feet based upon a 5K inch 
weather exposure and Ys inch spacing, must be shown on each bunch. 

On all 16 inch shingles, the covering capacity showing 25 square feet based upon a 5 inch 
weather exposure and }^ inch spacing, must be shown on each bunch. 

—74— 



SHIPPING WEIGHT FOR RED CEDAR SHINGLES 

Are to be Used for the Purpose of Computing Delivered Prices 

Lb. per Lb. per Lb. 

Bunch Square per M 

24" Royals, 8/16" and all 8/16"x24" shingles 6V/i 184 

Perfections, and all 18", 5/2X" shingles 42K 170 

Eurekas, and all 18", 5/2" shingles 38>< 153 

Extra Clears, and all 16", 5/2" shingles 37>i 150 187^ 

6/2" Extra Star-A-Stars, and all 16", 6/2" shingles 32 128 160 

These weights are based on the actual number of board feet in each bunch of shingles. 

Computation of the "Square" Unit on 16 Inch Shingles 

The "square" unit on 16 inch shingles specifies 20 double courses per bunch, four bunches 
per "square" width of bunch 20 inches, with 1)4 inch tolerance permitted per course for "fits" 
in packing. 

20x2x4 equals 160 courses per square lineage per course 18J-^ inches, weather exposure 5 inches. 

160x18^x5 equals 14,800 square inches of covering capacity per "square." 

14,800 divided by 144 equals 102.8 square feet guaranteed covering capacity per "square," 
laid on a regular surface. 

There are on the average 460 actual shingle pieces in one "square" of 16 inch shingles. 

Correct shingle laying practice specifies at least }4 imch spacing between shingles. This 
amounts to a total lineage of 58 inches per "square." Fifty-eight inches, laid 5 inches to the 
weather amounts to 2 square feet. 

Green shingles should be laid with butts close together. 

There are, on the average, 375 actual shingle pieces in one "square" of 18 inch shingles. 

Factors for Converting Square and Thousands 
Quantity 



To change Number M. 16 in. shingles into Number Sq. multiply by 1.1364 

Sq. " " " M. multiply by .88 

M. 18 in. " " " Sq. multiply by 1.3889 



Sq. " " " M. multiply by .88 

M. 18 in. " " " Sq. multiply by 1.388 

Sq. " " " M. multiply by .72 

Price 



To change M. price to equivalent Square price, 16 in. shingles, multiply by .88 

Sq. " " M. " 16 in. " " " 1.1364 

M. " " Square " 18 in. " " " .72 

Sq. " " M. " 18 in. " " " 1.3889 

CEDAR RUST 

Thousands of cedar trees are being cut down by order of the West Virginia department of 
agriculture because it has been learned, through experiments conducted in the State, that these 
trees in proximity to apple orchards cause what is known as "cedar rust," which destroys apple 
trees. 

CAUSE OF BUTT ROT AND BROWN STREAKS IN CEDAR 

Brown streaks and butt rot in cedar are caused by a wood destroying fungi, the Polyporous 
Juniperinus. 

The hollow butts found in mature trees are the result of hundreds of years toil on the part of 
this fungi, which will continue their slow but destructive work even after the tree is felled. 

This fungi remains dormant in dry wood and no further decay takes place, if the wood is heated 
up to a temperature of about 140 degrees fahrenheit, it gives up entirely and dies. 

Shingles. From experiments made by the U. S. Forest Service, it was found that in sections 
taken from the brown streaks of air seasoned shingles and incubated under ideal conditions, the 
fungi developed, though quite slowly. The fungi could not be persuaded to grow in sections 
taken from kiln dried shingles, indicating that kiln dried shingles, provided that they are not over- 
dried, can be expected to give superior service as compared with air seasoned shingles. 

PORT ORFORD CEDAR; LAWSON CYPRESS 
(Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana) 

On account of its great beauty as an ornamental evergreen, Lawson Cypress, the Port Orford 
Cedar of lumbermen, is widely known in this country and abroad. It is little known, however, 
as a forest tree. It is the largest of its genus and also the largest representative of its tribe 
(Cupressineoe) in North America. 

THE WOOD 

Port Orford Cedar, also known as White Cedar, is very fine grained, and in color is creamy 
white, with the slightest tinge of red. The wood has a pleasant rose aromatic odor, which is 
strong when freshly sawn, but not so pronounced after seasoning. It is a rather hard and firm wood, 
works as easily as the choicest pine, and is very durable without protection under all sorts of ex- 
posure. Experiments have proven that it can be stained to imitate mahogany more closely than 
any other wood. 

—75— 



PORT ORFORD CEDAR— Continued 

It is susceptible to a high polish, and possesses all the features necessary to class it as an ex- 
cellent material for the better class of interior finish. It is also considered very desirable for air- 
plane material, boat building, shelving, chests and wardrobes where expensive furs and valuable 
clothes are kept, as its odor is an absolute preventative from the attack of moths. Its straight 
grain and the facility with which it is worked gives this wood a high place among those used for 
match and pattern making. 

Nearly all the knots are rotten, in fact in many cases nothing remains but the hole where 
the knot formerly existed. In spite of this defect, however, the surrounding wood does not decay 
but is practically everlasting. 

FACTORY LUMBER 

A large percentage of No. 3 Common would cut up into the best grade of factory lumber, as 



the knots usually of standard size are wide apart, say at intervals of 4 to 10 feet, and outside of 
this defect the lumber is clear without blemish. 

RAILROAD TIES 

Port Orford Cedar Ties are used on Western Railroads in great quantities, and give excellent 
satisfaction; the demand usually exceeds the supply, as they are preferred to most of the Coast 
woods on account of their strength, close grain and resistance to decay without preservative treat- 
ment. It is certain that the future production of ties will steadily decrease as Port Orford Cedar 
is now used in lengths as short as one foot and the prices paid for it, both in lumber and the log 
have placed the timber value too high for use as ties except where they can be produced in small 
tracts of timber which are more or less inaccessible for the extension of logging roads. 

SHIPPING PORTS 

_ The shipping ports are Coos Bay, and Coquille River, Oregon, consignments destined for the 
United Kingdom or other Foreign Ports, would probably be reshipped at San Francisco. 

As this wood splits easily, great care should be exercised in the handling to avoid breakages. 

NOBLE FrR 
(Abies Nobilis) 

Of all true firs. Noble Fir is considered the most valuable. In the deep forests which it in- 
habits, it is, when at its best, one of the most magnificently tall and symmetrically formed trees 
of its kind. The remarkably straight, even and only slightly tapering trunks are often clear of 
branches for 100 feet or more. Large trees are from 140 to 200 feet in height, or exceptionally 
somewhat taller, and from 30 to 60 inches in diameter; trees 6 to 7 feet in diameter occur, but 
they are rare. 

RANGE 

Noble Fir grows chiefly on the western slope of the Cascade Mountains, at elevations of from 
2,000 to 5,000 feet, from Mount Baker in Northern Washington to the Siskiyou Mountains in 
Southern Oregon. It also occurs in the Olympic Mountains and in the coast ranges of Western 
Washington. 

Though uncommon on the eastern slope of the Cascade Range, it is very abundant on the 
Western slope in the vicinity of the Columbia River in Oregon. 

In Multnomah County, Oregon, near Bridal Veil, there are about six to eight thousand acres 
which are estimated to contain over 150 million board feet of Noble Fir, which is standing in a body 
of 15,000 acres, the balance of the stand being principally old growth Douglas Fir. 

Noble Fir is abundant on Mount Rainier at elevations of 4,000 to 5,000 feet, and noted near 
Ashford at 3,500 feet. 

COLOR AND GRAIN 

The wood is of a creamy white color, irregularly marked with reddish brown areas, which 
adds much to its beauty. It is moderately hard, strong, firm, medium close grain, and compact. 
It is free from pitch, is of soft texture, but hard fiber and when dressed shows a peculiar satin sheen. 
In quality it is entirely different from and superior to any of the light, very soft fir woods. When 
seasoned this wood so closely resembles Western Hemlock that it is almost impossible to distinguish 
between the two when thoroughly dry. 

FINISH 

It is one of the best woods known for interior or exterior finish, siding, mouldings, sash and 
doors, and factory work for it retains its shape and "holds its place" well. 

FLOORING 

On account of the hard fiber, when sawn vertical (edge) grain, it makes a very satisfactory 
flooring, for it is close grained and presents a hard wearing surface. 

GENERAL QUALITY 

As the amount of surface clear cut from Noble Fir logs, generally runs from 60 to 80 per cent, 
the merchantable or common grades are consequently proportionately small. 

The smaller trees are fine grained and sound knotted, the knots being firm and red, and inter- 
woven with the fiber of the surrounding wood. For this reason an excellent "board" is the result, 
for stock boards, for barns, and other purposes where good sound common boards are wanted. 
This lumber holds a nail well, and produces good merchantable piece stuff such as studs, joists, 
planks, timbers, and ties. 

In the butt cut of larger trees, the knots are often black and loose and lumber cut from this 
class of log produces a fine grade of "cut up" material. 

The wood is odorless, tasteless and non-resinous, making boxes fit for butter, and other articles 
which would taint from contact with some other kind of woods. 

WEIGHT 

While the wet, green lumber is heavy — much heavier than Douglas Fir, it dries out so that 
it ships considerably lighter. 

—76— 



WESTERN WHITE PINE 
(Pinus Ponderosa) 

Western White or Soft Pine is botanically a yellow pine; the range extends from Southern 
British Colunabia to lower California and Northern Mexico, including its Rocky Mountain form 
(P. Ponderosa Scopularum) occurring in every state west of the Great Plains and one hundredth 
meridian. The total stand of Western White Pine timber is greater than that of any other pine 
in Nortli America. 

TRADE TERMS 

Western White Pine is sold under various trade names. In California it was formerly 
known as Western Yellow Pine, but for commercial reasons the name was changed to California 
White Pine. 

In British Columbia it is known as Western Soft Pine and is termed such by the British 
Columbia Forest Service Department. In Idaho and Washington it is also known as Western 
Soft Pine and in Arizona as Arizona White Pine. 

Height and Diameter 

Trees range in height from 80 to 140 feet, with a practically clear trunk of from 40 to 60 feet, 
the diameter runs from 2 to 4 feet. 

Unusually large trees are from 150 to 180 feet high, while trees are said to have been found 
over 200 feet in height. The largest diameter recorded is about 8 feet. 

The Wood 

Western White or Soft Pine is the coming wood of the soft pine group; it is soft, light, strong 
in proportion to its weight, works very easily and smoothly without splintering or splitting, and 
readily takes and holds paints, stains and varnishes. 

It seasons unusually well, being very free from warping and checking, and once seasoned holds 
its shape without shrinking or swelling. It varies in color and texture according as to whether it 
comes from the outer or inner part of the tree. 

The outer wood of the tree is yellowish white in color, with a very fine grain and soft satiny 
texture; it is from the outer part of the log that all the clear grades are cut. 

The wood near the center of the tree is very similar to Norway Pine, being orange brown or 
reddish brown in color. It is less soft than the light colored outer portion, and having as a rule 
grown faster, it is somewhat coarser in grain. The lower grades of lumber are sawn from the cen- 
tral part of the log, and also from the top log. 

Owing to the large size to which Western Pine grows, and because the wood does not check 
in seasoning, it can bk obtained in wide clear stock. The knots are usually larger than in Eastern 
White Pine but few in number. 

Short clear lengths such as are used for sash and door stock can be cut from between the knots 
easily, and with little waste, a valuable quality appreciated by factories which purchase Pine for 
cutting out clear lumber between the defects. The soft, even fiber, fine grain, and good working 
qualities of the wood make it highly valued for all kinds of finish work. 

Interior Finish 

Western White Pine is a splendid wood for interior finish. Any form of varnish, hard oil, 
stain, paint or enamel may be used on it. Oils or stains penetrate readily below the surface 

and give a permanent color, which gradually softens, darkens and becomes more beautiful with 
age. On account of its softness, even texture, and ease of working, the wood comes from the 
planing machines without showing any knife marks or fuzz, and with a smooth surface which can 
be gives a high, satin-like finish with less expensive hand labor than most woods. The wood, 
if properly dried, does not check while seasoning, and when thoroughly dry it stays in place and 
does not swell or shrink. ^ 

Dimension and Framing Timber 

A large quantity of the Pine is cut into the ordinary dimension material used in buildings, 
such as joists, rafters, sheathing, studding, shiplap, etc. Some of the qualities which give it value 
for these uses are: It does not warp or shrink after being seasoned, is easy to work, nails without 
splitting and holds nails well. It is used in buildings of every kind — houses, barns, granaries, 
garages, sheds, and all farm buildings. 

—77— 



WESTERN WHITE PINE CONTINUED 

Siding 

Western White Pine is manufactured into all varieties of siding — drop, bevel, novelty, barn, 
and also the old-fashioned bevel siding commonly called "weather boarding." Its ability to take 
and hold paint, and the fact that even the thin bevel siding will nail without splitting, makes it 
especially suitable for this purpose. 

Siding is manufactured in two widths, four inch and six inch. In the cities four inch siding 
is in strong demand, owing to the better style and architectual effects obtainable by its use. In 
the rural districts the six inch siding has been used most, but the narrower width is now becoming 
popular. 

Outside Finish 

All wood exposed to the weather should be kept well painted, since paint keeps out moisture 
and fungi and prevents decay. Some woods do not have the quality of holding paint well. If 
they are used for outside finish the continual repainting which they need is a big item in the up- 
keep expenses of a building. Western White Pine is especially adapted for outside finish, because 
it takes and holds paint so well. 

Sash and Doors 

A large proportion of the shop and factory grades are shipped to Minnesota, Wisconsin and 
Michigan, the home of Eastern White Pine, and there manufactured into sash and doors for which 
the Eastern White Pine formerly was exclusively used. 

Patterns 

Owing to the ability of seasoned Western White Pine to hold its shape without warping, 
shrinking, or swelling, it is also used, like Eastern White Pine, for pattern lumber. 

Boxes 

Western White Pine as a box material is extensively used from the Pacific Coast east to the 
Mississippi River, especially for fruit boxes. It makes a box that is strong, serviceable, and also 
attractive in appearance. The wood is light in weight, takes a good, smooth finish from the 
planer, and is easy to print on. Very thin lumber can be used, because it is strong and does not 
split when being nailed. 

Cooperage and Tanlcs 

Western White Pine is used in slack cooperage for buckets, kegs, and barrels lor shipping 
fruit. It is also used a great deal for tank stock. 

Furniture 

Western White Pine is well suited for making all kinds of cheap furniture, such as kitchen 
tables, chairs, and cupboards. 

Agricultural Implements 

Western White Pine is much used in the manufacture of agricultural implements, carriage 
frames, wagon boxes, and similar products. 

WEIGHT 

The following weights, which have been obtained by manufacturers in making shipments, 
and are shown in shipping records, may be considered approximately correct: 

Per 1,000 Feet B. M. 
Dry 

Boards, Dressed one side 2,000 lbs. 

Rough 2,400 " 

Shiplap, Finish 1,800 " 

Dimension, Dressed one side and one edge 2,150 " 

Timbers, Rough... 2,500 " 

Drop Siding and Flooring 1,750 " 

Bevel Siding and Ceiling, 5^ 750 " 

Ceiling 1,700 "♦ 

Lath, per 1,000 pieces 450 " 

ANNUAL PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA AND BRITISH COLUMBIA 

During recent years the annual production of White Pine in California has averaged 
about three hundred and fifty million board feet and in British Columbia, seventy- 
five million board feet. 



Half Dry 


Green 


2,450 lbs. 


2,900 lbs. 


2,800 " 


3,200 " 


2,200 " 


2,600 " 


2,575 " 


3,000 " 


2,900 " 


3,300 " 



WESTERN AND EASTERN WHITE PINE COMPARED 

The superiority of one of the pines over the other depends upon the particular quality con- 
sidered. Southern yellow pines are stronger than the Western white pine; hence if strength is 
of first consideration it might be asserted that the southern pines are of higher class. Wood- 
workers often classify a lumber according to the ease with which it may be cut, fitted, and finished; 
and from that viewpoint some would prefer Western white pine, because it is much softer than any 
of the principal southern yellow pines. 

Some users judge a pine by the grain of the wood, or rather by the figure produced by the 
growth rings. Generally, the southern pines show stronger figure than the Western white pine. 
But sometimes the very plainness of the wood is a desirable quality, and when such is the case, 
the Western pine may have the advantage. 

Sometimes weight of a wood is an advantage or a disadvantage and the wood is rated ac- 
cordingly. Western white pine is much lighter than the southern yellow pines. 

Southern yellow pine is not a single species, but consists of more than a half dozen, differ- 
ing among themselves in quality. The three leading yellow pines of the South are longleaf, short- 
leaf, and loblolly. Botanically the Western white pine is also a yellow pine; but because of its 
light, white wood, and freedom from resin, it is generally called white pine. The Norway pine 
of the northern and eastern States also is a yellow pine, but it is often compared with the northern 
white pine. 

The following figures make some comparisons between the physical properties of these six 
commercial pines. The dry wood per cubic foot weighs in pounds as follows: 

Longleaf pine 42 Norway pine 34 

Shortleaf pine 38 Western white pine 28 

Loblolly pine 38 Northern white pine . 27 

Below is shown the comparison of these woods in hardness. The figures tell the pressure in 
pounds required to sink a steel ball of certain size a certain distance in the side of a dry stick. The 
value of this data lies in the fact that a means is provided for comparing one wood's hardness with 
another's: 

Longleaf pine 1020 Norway pine 600 

Shortleaf pine 880 Northern white pine 470 

Loblolly pine 840 Western white pine 460 

It is thus shown that longleaf is more than twice as hard as Western white pine. Tests of 
strength of dry wood show the comparative rating of these pines as follows; the figures indicating 
modulus of rupture: 

Longleaf pine 16700 Norway pine 12300 

Loblolly pine 15600 Western white pine 9800 

Shortleaf pine 13900 Northern white pine 9000 

The conclusion to be drawn from comparing data concerning these pines is that one may be 
better for one purpose, another for another; and a person is seldom warranted in a statement that 
one wood is better or poorer than another, unless the statement is understood to apply to par- 
ticular uses. 

IDAHO WHITE PINE 
(Pinos Monticola) 

The Idaho white pine, which is produced in Northern Idaho, Eastern Washington and West- 
ern Montana, is a very closely related species of the white pine of the East, and its wood is used 
for every purpose that the eastern white pine is. It differs, however, in some respects, particularly 
in the common lumber, as it is characteristically a very small-knotted type and makes a very 
high quality of common. It is also free from shake and remarkably straight grained. It was 
pronounced by the government as one of the best woods in the country for airplane purposes. It 
is used in pattern work, exterior trim, siding, porch work, mill work, and in fact is the same all 
around wood that the white pine of the East has always been. 

SUGAR PINE 
(Pinus Lambertiana) 

Sugar Pine belongs to the white pine group, and botanically closely resembles its eastern 
relative, the white pine (Pinus Strobus). 

The wood of Sugar Pine is soft, straight grained, and easily worked. It is very resinous, and 
the resin ducts are large and conspicuous. The heartwood is light brown in color, while the sap- 
wood is yellowish white. When finished the wood has a satiny luster that renders it excellent 
for interior finish. 

—79— 



SUGAR PINE— Continued 

The specific gravity of the dry timber is 0.3684, and rough dry timber averages about 2.5 
pounds to the board foot. 

In contact with the soil Sugar Pine shows moderately durable qualities, although this might 
prove less apparent in a climate not so dry as that of California. In brief. Sugar Pine closely 
approaches the Eastern White Pine in its physical characteristics. 

Sugar Pine timber has an almost endless variety of uses. It is used extensively for doors, 
blinds, sashes, and interior finish. In pattern work Sugar Pine is largely replacing White Pine, 
as it is cheaper, and its softness and straight grain render it an excellent substitute. Its freedom 
from odor or taste causes the wood to be much used in the manufacture of druggists' drawers. 

Other common uses are for oars, mouldings, ship work, chain boards, bakery work, cooperage, 
and woodenware — in short, for almost any purpose for which White Pine is used. The poorest 
grades are used extensively for boxes, especially fruit boxes, and for drying-tray slats. 

Logs too knotty to cut uppers, but otherwise sound and straight grained, are sometimes 
turned into bolts for matchwood. 

Sugar Pine is one of the leading woods of California, and in the year 1918 the annual 
production of this lumber in the state amounted to one hundred and eight million 
board feet. 

WESTERN LARCH 
(Larix Occidentalis) 

Western Larch is the largest and most massive of North American Larches. Its straight 
trunks grow ordinarily to a height of from 100 to 180 feel, and to a diameter of 3 or 4 feet. Not 
infrequently trees reach a height of over 200 feet and a diameter of from 5 to 8 feet. The tapering 
trunks are clear of branches for from 60 to 100 feet or more. 

Description of the Wood 

The heart-wood is a bright reddish-brown color, while the sap-wood, which is usuejly from 
yi to IK inches thick, is yellowish-white. Western Larch lumber is practically all heart-wood, 
because the sap-wood is so thin that it is generally cut off with the slab in sawing the logs. The 
annual rings are clearly marked, each showing two distinct bands, one of light colored wood grown 
in the spring, and the other of darker, harder, and stronger wood grown in the summer. The 
grain of the wood is straight and very close. The fiber is hard and tough; the wood does not split 
easily, and it holds nails firmly. The knots are sound, tight, and small, being seldom over \% 
inches in diameter. In appearance Western Larch lumber somewhat resembles Longleaf Pine, 
and is also very similar to European Larch, which is the most highly prized of European conifers. 
It is more uniform in quality and more durable than the average Southern Yellow Pine lumber 
(the latter is a trade name for several species, which differ widely in quality and strength). 

Uses and Durability 

Few woods can compare with Western Larch in its remarkable combination of strength, dura- 
bility, and beauty, and it is used for a great variety of purposes, outside and inside, ranging from 
the heaviest wharf or bridge construction to the finest interior finish. 

Dimension Timber 

Western Larch grows to an exceptional size — much larger than any of the Southern Yellow 
Pines. For this reason, and because of its strength and durability, it makes fine dimension tim- 
bers, very suitable for all kinds of construction work, and particularly for work exposed to the 
weather or in contact with the soil. It is used in railway trestles, bridges, wharves, docks, tram- 
ways, culverts, warehouses, factories, snow sheds, boat andship building, car construction, and 
similar work in which both strength and durability are required. 

Piling, Poles and Posts 

As a piling timber Western Larch is unsurpassed. It can be obtained in any dimension re- 
quired, is exceedingly tough and strong, drives easily and without shattering, and has great dura- 
bility in contact with the soil. These qualities make it very suitable also for posts and poles. 

Railway Ties 

Western Larch ties are preferred by British Columbia railways to those of any other species. 
The experience of many years has demonstrated their durability, strength, and especially their 
ability to withstand rail cutting. 

Framing 

Though a large proportion of Western Larch is sawn into frammg lumber and used for all 
general building purposes, it has usually been mixed with Douglas Fir and other woods and has 
seldom been sold under its own name. For this reason its splendid qualities as a framing lumber 
— durability, strength, toughness, and the manner in which it holds nails — have not received 
full recognition by the trade. Additional value is given to Western Larch by the fact that its 
knots are small and sound, and do not weaken or impair its strength. Western Larch is especially 
suitable for framing that is in contact with the soil or exposed to weather or moisture, as, for ex- 
ample, in hothouses and factories where there is a large amount of moisture in the air. 

Outside Finish 

As an outside wood Western Larch takes a high rank owing not only to its natural durability 
even when unpainted, but also to its ability to take and hold paint, stains, and varnishes. 

Here, also, its hardness and wearing qualities are valuable, and the life of any building is 
increased by using it. 

—80— 



t 



WESTERN LARCH— Continued 

Interior Finish 

Those who have used Western Larch consider it an excellent wood for interior work on account 
of its distinct and striking grain, fine texture, and its finishing qualities. It finishes smoothly and 
easily, takes a high satin-like polish, does not dent or mar easily, is durable, and readily takes and 
holds stains, varnishes, oil finish, and paints. Owing to its beautiful grain and appearance when 
oiled or stained, it is particularly well suited for ceiling, wainscot, door and window casings, and 
base boards, etc. 

To some extent this wood resembles Southern Long-leaf Pine in appearance, though its grain 
is softer and its freedom from pitch makes it finish better. When finished in natural color, Western 
Larch gradually darkens with age and takes on a rich red mahogany color. 

Flooring 

One of the severest tests to which wood is put is when used as flooring. Here it gets hard 
and continual wear, and is often wetted and dried. It must be dense and hard enough to resist 
abrasion, must not splinter, and must take and hold stains, varnish, polish or paint. 

Western Larch meets all these requirements; in fact, for flooring it is as good as many of the 
hardwoods and is, of course, much cheaper. 

Boats 

Western Larch is especially suitable for boat building, for besides having the requisite strength 
and hardness it is very resistant to water soakage and to decay. It is used for: 

Frames Keels Stem-pieces Stems 

Flooring Knees Stem-posts Stringers. 

Grain Elevators 

For building the large grain elevators and the granaries now becoming so common , Western 
Larch is a favored wood not only on account of its strength, durability, and cheapness, but also 
because it is more than usually fire-resistant. 

Silos, Tanks, Water Troughs and Refrigerators 

One of the largest demands for Western Larch is from the Eastern States for tank and silo 
stock. Its ability to withstand exposure and moisture makes it unsurpassed for these uses. 

Wood-Block Paving 

As a material for wood-block paving — the best form of paving known — Western Larch is in 
the first rank, because of its hardness and resistance to wear, its natural durability, and because 
it can be easily and cheaply creosoted. A properly laid Western Larch pavement is very long 
wearing, economical in upkeep, and easy to repair when necessary. The surface is level, and 
smooth but not slippery, and gives good footing to horses. It is a sanitary pavement, for wood 
blocks are clean, do not produce dust, and the creosote in them is a disinfectant. It is a non-con- 
ductor of heat and is free from glare and radiation. The fact that a wood pavement is noiseless 
is an advantage appreciated by every city inhabitant. 

Telephone Cross-Arms 

Western Larch, on account of its great strength and great durability, is one of the best cross- 
arm materials available. 

Gates and Fences 

A wood suitable for gates and fences must be very durable, even when unpainted and in con- 
tact with the ground. It must must also be strong and must hold nails extremely well. Western 
Larch meets all these requirements and is shipped as far east as the State of Iowa for manufacture 
into gates and fence material. 

Other Uses 

In addition to those mentioned above. Western Larch is used for a great many other purposes, 
Buch as flumes, wooden piping, conduits, culverts, implement and vehicle stock, and furniture. 

Weight 

Western Larch usually weighs about 43.8 pounds per cubic foot when green, about 35.4 
pounds when air seasoned, and about 29.7 pounds when oven dry. Comparing oven dry weights, 
it is thus 2 pounds heavier per cubic foot than Douglas Fir and 9 pounds lighter than the Long- 
leaf Pine of the Southern States. 

Shrinkage 

On account of its weight when green, practically all larch is air-seasoned before being placed 
on the market. The average shrinkage during seasoning is as follows: 

Radially 4.4 per cent 

Tangentially 8.7 

Longitudinally 0.2 " 

Various Names for Western Larch 

Western Larch is known by the following local names: Tamarack, Red American Larch, 
Larch, Western Tamarack, and Hackmatack. It is widely known as "Montana Larch" and 
the growing demand for it is evidence of its increasing popularity with Eastern buyers. 

WHY WESTERN LARCH IS NOT EXPORTED 

As Western Larch is principally manufactured by Inland Mills, it cannot be profit- 
ably shipped in cargo lots to Foreign Countries on account of the extra cost of trans- 
portation by car to a shipping port, and the competition of other Coast woods. 

—81— 



WESTERN OR SITKA SPRUCE 

(Picca Sitchensis) 

In comparison with other soft woods in the United States that are used for lumber, Western 
Spruce also known as Sitka and Pacific Spruce, is particulary clean and white, of a soft texture 
with tough fiber and has a beautiful sheen or glow peculiar to itself. 

WESTERN AND EASTERN SPRUCE COMPARED 

Comparing Western Spruce with the Spruce of the Eastern States, it bears the same relation 
that the large tree does to the sapling. The Western Spruce grows very large, the average size 
of the logs being nearly four feet in diameter, while the average diameter of the Eastern Spruce 
is less than one foot. 

The small tree is fine grained and contains many small red knots, while the larger tree is 
coarser in grain with a much larger percentage of clear, and what knots occur in the body of the 
tree are usually black and loose. 

USE FOR FINISH 

The uses for which Spruce is best adapted are finish, siding, doors, sash, factory work, musical 
instruments and boxes, especially those for containing pure food products. 

Because Spruce is the best substitute for White Pine, now becoming scarce, it is used by sash 
and door factories in the manufacture of doors, windows, mouldings, frames, etc., and is found 
to be a very satisfactory wood for these purposes. 

PIANO SOUNDING BOARDS 

Spruce is one of the most resonant woods, because the fibers are long and regularly arranged. 
It is one of the best woods for the bodies of violins and the sounding boards of pianos. 

BOXES FOR FOOD PRODUCTS 

Many of the manufacturers of Spruce on the Pacific Coast have box factories and the lower 
grades are manufactured into box shooks for all purposes. The spruce lumber, however, should 
be reserved for use in those boxes which are to contain food products, such as crackers, corn 
starch, butter, dried fruits, etc., because it is so clean, sweet and odorless that it does not taint 
these substances. It is also largely used for egg cases to be placed in cold storage, because eggs 
will taste if packed in boxes made from pine or wood containing pitch. Spruce is used for lining 
refrigerators for the same reason. 

SECRET OF SURFACING 

There has been a great deal of complaint on the part of those who have bought and tried to 
work spruce because it works so hard. The factory man who was used to white pine with its short 
and brittle grain, has been disappointed because his methods did not bring the same results with 
spruce. There is but one secret about spruce and the man who knows this can get first class re- 
sults without special effort. The secret is to have the wood thoroughly dry and use sharp knives. 
The fiber of spruce, being long and tough when wet, cuts very hard, but when dry there is no 
difficulty if the knives are sharp. 

HOW TO GRIND KNIVES FOR DRESSING SPRUCE 



The cut shows the back bevel on the planer knife successfully used by planing mill experts 
for surfacing "Green" or "Dry" Spruce. When the knife is ground with the bevel as illustrated, 
it makes a square cut and leaves a smooth surface, as it breaks off the chip instead of tearing it 
away from the board. 

QUALITY 

Spruce grades are always good because of the character of the wood. The principal defect 
is knots and as these are largely black and loose, the wood must be cut up into practically clear 
lumber. After this is done, the grade is likely to be satisfactory to any buyer. 

Spruce has just the right texture to receive and hold paint nicely and is the best known wood 
for making sign boards, first, because any size and length can be secured, and second, because two 
coats of paint on spruce will give as good a finish as three coats on almost any other soft wood. 

The spruce trees of the Pacific Coast are so large that the percentage of sap is small, indeed. 
For this reason spruce does not stain or discolor easily, even if the lumber is placed where it will 
become mouldy, the blue mould will dress off with a very light cut. 

The above statement regarding the spruce of the Pacific Coast will enable the buyer to judge 
whether it is adapted to his purpose. 

—82— 




WESTERN OR SITKA SPRUCE 
(Pica Sitchensis) 



—83— 



SPRUCE FOR AIRPLANES 

Western Spruce is the ideal wood for airplane construction. It is the toughest softwood 
for its weight, possesses tremendous shock absorbing qualities, and does not splinter when hit 
by a missile, it is used in the frames of airplane wings, ailerons, fins, rudders, elevators, and for the 
stabilizers, the struts, landing gear, fuselage, flooring, engine bed, after deck, and even the seats 
are made of it. About 350 pieces of spruce are required in a single airplane, but not all of them 
are individually different; the wing beams are practically of similar dimensions, and the struts 
vary only in size according to the strains put upon them. 

Roughly, the specifications for spruce parts are: Straight grain, clear from knots and defects 
so as to give maximum strength. The size of the rough pieces must be such as to insure a finished 
dimension after deducting losses for finishing, checking and shrinkage. Desirable pieces run l}4 
inch to 3 inches thick, 3 inches and upward in width, and from 5 feet to 17 feet in length. Prac- 
tically all the available spruce is in the United States and along the western coast of British Co- 
lumbia. In this country, it grows close to the Pacific coast on the western slopes of the Cascade 
range in the States of Washington and Oregon. The stand of Sitka spruce, which is the best 
airplane stock, in these two States is estimated at 11,000,000,000 feet. But less than half of it 
is near enough to transportation facilities, or in dense enough stands to be commercialized. 



WESTERN HEMLOCK 
(Tsuga Heterophylla) 

The wood of Western Hemlock is light, fairly soft, strong and straight-grained. It is free 
from pitch or resin. Its strength and ease of working distinguish it from the Eastern Hemlock 
(tsuga canadensis and tsuga caroliniana). For ordinary building purposes Western Hem- 
lock is equally as useful as Douglas Fir. It is manufactured into the common forms of lumber, 
and sold and used for the same purposes as Douglas Fir. It is suitable for inside joists, scantling, 
lath, siding, flooring and ceiling; in fact, it is especially adapted to uses requiring ease of working, 
a handsome finish or lightness combined with a large degree of strength. For the manufacture 
of sash and door stock, fixtures, furniture, turned stock, wainscot and panel it is recognized as a 
wood of exceptional merit. It is also largely used in the manufacture of boxes and shelving. 

The true value of Western Hemlock timber has not been appreciated on account of its name, 
since it has been confused with the Eastern Hemlock, which produces wood of inferior quality. — 
"Forest Trees of the Pacific Coast," by George B. Sudworth. 

INTERIOR FINISH 

Unlike its Eastern relative. Western Hemlock contains a good proportion of uppers. The 
clear grades are specially suitable for inside finish, are not easily scratched and when dressed have 
a smooth surface with a satin sheen, susceptible of a high polish. It will also take enamel finish 
to perfection, and is well adapted to use as core stock for veneered products. If sawn slash the 
figure of the grain presents a beautiful effect. The wood is non-resinous and odorless (when dry). 

FLOORING 

Vertical Grain Hemlock makes an exceptionally satisfactory flooring. It hardens with age 
and as a proof of its lasting and wearing qualities the Hemlock floor laid in the Court House of 
Clatsop County, Oregon, was according to Judge Trenchard in good condition when the building 
was torn down, after 50 years continual service. 

In the Judge's old home, built in 1860, the Hemlock flooring is in excellent condition and so 
hard that it is now difficult to even drive a tack into it. 

BEVEL SIDING 

Millions of feet of Clear Western Hemlock are annually manufactured into Bevel Siding. 
It is a great competitor of Spruce, which it closely resembles, and is often bought or sold as such, 
either through ignorance or misrepresentation. 

USE FOR LIGHT CONSTRUCTION 

For sheathing, shiplap, roof or barn boards Western Hemlock is an ideal wood; it is noted 
for holding nails well, is free from pitch or gum, and the knots in merchantable grades are firm and 
small. For sanitary reasons it should have a decided preference in the construction of dwelling 
houses, as it is practically proof against insects, vermin or white ants, and is shunned by rats and 
mice. 

—84— 



WESTERN HEMLOCK— Continued 

MINING TIMBERS 

Entire or part cargoes of Western Hemlock timbers, ties and planks are regularly shipped 
from the States of Washington and Oregon into California or Mexico, where the lumber is gener- 
ally used for mining purposes. 

PULP WOOD 

Many millions of feet of Hemlock are yearly converted into pulp for the making of paper. 
Practically all of the Hemlock on the Columbia River is used for this purpose by the mills of Oregon 
City and La Camas. 

BOXES AND PACKING CASES 

Boxes or Packing Cases manufactured out of Hemlock compare very favorably with other 
woods for this purpose. A great number of Hemlock oil cases are shipped to the Orient. One 
firm in Washington is exporting 50,000 cases per month to Hong Kong and Singapore. 

WEIGHT 

Though Hemlock is very heavy when green, after seasoning it will weigh from 300 to 500 
pounds per 1,000 board feet less than Douglas Fir. When paying from 40 to 50 cents per hundred 
pounds for freight by rail, it means an additional profit that the business man should not lose 
sight of in cases where the competitive price of other woods is close. 

GRADING 

The same grading rules that apply to Douglas Fir are generally used for Hemlock. 
KILN DRYING 

The regular and even structure of the wood and total absence of pitch renders it capable of 
rapid kiln drying at high temperature without injury. 

STRENGTH 

The strength of Western Hemlock will be found in the table "Average Strength Values for 
Structual Timbers," Page 8. 

WESTERN HEMLOCK FOR FOREIGN CARGO SHIPMENT 

Buyers and sellers of Western Hemlock will find it to their advantage to act on the following 
suggestions: 

Freshly sawn Hemlock is very heavy and often weighs from four to six pounds per board foot 
and if shipped in this condition, it displaces more deadweight than Douglas Fir. 

The ordinary tramp steamer will carry about ten per cent more in board feet measurement 
of Douglas Fir than Hemlock, therefore it would not be good policy to ship a straight cargo of 
freshly sawn Hemlock. 

If Hemlock is shipped in amounts of ten to fifteen per cent of cargo, it should be a paying 
proposition if stowed first in lower hold, as the heavy weight in the bottom of the vessel will in- 
crease the stability and should cause a reduction of water ballast. This equalizes matters as the 
extra weight of the Hemlock displaces water ballast upon which no freight is paid. 

SIZES BEST ADAPTED FOR CARGO SHIPMENT 

The following sizes and lengths can be manufactured to advantage, make good stowage, and 
can be used with satisfactory results for house construction or similar work. 

CLEAR GRADES 

1x3 to 1x12—8 to 24 feet long. 
2x3 to 2x12 — 8 to 24 feet long. 

MERCHANTABLE GRADES 

1x3 to Ix 8 — 8 to 24 feet long. 
2x3 to 2x12—8 to 32 feet long. 
3x3 to 3x12 — 8 to 32 feet long. 
4x4 to 4x12 — 8 to 32 feet long. 

SIZES FOR RE-SAWING PURPOSES 

It is not advisable to ship Hemlock timbers or sizes of 6 inches in thickness or over, that con- 
tain boxed heart, if they are to be used for re-sawing purposes, as Hemlock usually opens up shakey 
at the heart, and this would cause a loss to the buyer, and result in general dissatisfaction. 

—85— 



BLACK COTTONWOOD 
(Populus Trichocarpa) 

This species, the largest of our poplars, is sometimes known as Balsam Cottonwood, but 
usually simply as Cottonwood. Black Cottonwood is a western species, not unlike the common 
Cottonwood which occurs from the Atlantic seaboard to the eastern side of the Continental divide. 

Trees 80 to 125 feet high and from 3 to 4 feet in diameter are not uncommon; trees somewhat 
taller and from 5 to 6 feet through are reported in immense stands in the Naas Bay and Skeena 
River districts of British Columbia; large stands are also found between Prince George and Quesnel 
which can be reached by the Pacific Great Eastern Railway. 

Large logs obtainable from the best grown trees, give a large percentage of wide clear stock. 

The wood is grayish white, soft, odorless, tasteless, straight and even grained, very light, 
long fibered and readily nailed, glued and veneered. In addition it resists shrinking, swelling, 
warping and splitting. Because of its softness, light color and long, straight fiber, it is particularly 
adapted to pulp and excelsior manufacture. Its color, lack of odor, lightness, cheapness and fa- 
cility in nailing, fit it especially for box material. 

It is in demand for carriage and automobile bodies, and to some extent for furniture. Its 
great strength in comparison with its light weight, renders it especially valuable for the manu- 
facture of laminated wood products, drawer bottoms, shelving and like uses. 

In the near future black cottonwood will be in great demand in the U. S. Pacific States and 
British Columbia, owing to its many excellent properties and the scarcity of other broad leaf 
timber trees suitable for the special purposes to which this wood can be put. 

Green cottonwood is likely to stain badly when piled, accordingly a number of lumbermen 
either end dry the material or pole dry it for a week or two and then place it in a stuck pile. 

Weight per Cubic Foot 
Green 46 pounds Air dried 24 pounds Kiln dried 23 pounds. 

THE INTERNATIONAL METRIC SYSTEM 

SYNOPSIS OF THE SYSTEM 

The fundamental unit of the metric system is the Meter — the unit of length. From this 
the units of capacity (Liter) and of weight (Gram) were derived. All other units are the decimal 
sub-divisions or multiples of these. These three units are simply related; e. g., for all practical 
purposes one Cubic Decimeter equals one Liter and one Liter of water weighs one Kilogram. The 

metric tables are formed by combining th ' '"" ' " '"^ "' • ■■- 

numerical prefixes, as in the following table 

PREFIXES MEANING 

milli- equals one thousandth 

centi- equals one hundredth 

deci- equals one tenth 

Unit equals one 
deka- equals ten 

hecto- equals one hundred 

kilo- equals one thousand 

UNITS OF LENGTH 

milli-meter equals .001 meter 

centi-meter equals 

deci-meter equals 

METER equals 

deka-meter equals 

Kiecto-meter equals 

kilo-meter equals 

Where miles are used in England and the United States for measuring distances, the kilometer 
(1,000 meters) is used in metric countries. The kilometer is about 5 furlongs. There are about 
1,600 meters in a statute mile, 20 meters in a chain, and 5 meters in a rod. 

The meter is used for dry goods, mer chandise, engineering construction, building, and other 
purposes where the yard and foot are used. The meter is about a tenth longer than the yeird. 

The centimeter and millimeter are used instead of the inch and its fractions in machine con- 
struction and similar work. The centimeter, as its name shows, is the hundredth of a meter. 
It is used in cabinet work, in expressing sizes of paper, books, and many cases where the inch is 
used. The centimeter is about two-fifths of an inch and the millimeter about one twenty-fifth 
of an inch. The millimeter is divided for finer work into tenths, hundredths and thoudandths. 

If a number of distances in millimeters, meters and kilometers are to be added, reduction is 
unnecessary. They are added as dollars, dimes, and cents are now added. For example, 
"1,050.25 meters" is not read "1 kilometer, 5 dekameters, 2 decimeters and 5 centimeters," but 
"one thousand and fifty meters, twenty-five centimeters," just as "$1,050.25" is read "one 
thousand and fifty dollars and twenty-five cents." 



! words ' 


"Meter," "Grar 


Q," and "Liter" with the 
UNITS 


1/1000 


.001 




1/100 


.01 


"meter" for length 


1/10 


.1 






1 


"gram" for weight or mas 


10/1 


10 




100/1 


100 


"liter" for capacity 


1000/1 


1000 





.01 


meter 


.1 


meter 


1 


meter 


10 


meter 


100 


meter 


1000 


meter 



—86- 



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FiQ. 1. Comparison Scale: 10 Centimeters and 4 Inches. (Actual Size.) 

AREA 

The table of areas is formed by squaring the length measures, as in our common system. For 
land measure 10 meters square is called an "Are" (meaning "area"). The side of one are is about 
33 feet. The Hectare is 100 meters square, and, as its name indicates, is 100 areas, or about 2yi 
acres. An acre is about 0.4 hectare. A standard United States quarter section contains almost 
exactly 64 hectares. A square kilometer contains 100 hectares. 

For smaller measures of surface the square meter is used. The square meter is about 20 
per cent larger than the square yard. For still smaller surfaces the square centimeter is used. 
A square inch contains about 6K square centimeters. 

VOLUME 

The cubic measures are the cubes of the linear units. The cubic meter (sometimes called 
the stere, meaning "solid") is the unit of volume. A cubic meter of water weighs a metric ton 
and is equal to 1 kiloliter. The cubic meter is used in place of the cubic yard and is about 30 
per cent larger. This is used for "cuts and fills" in grading land, measuring timber, expressing 
contents of tanks and reservoirs, flow of rivers, dimensions of stone, tonnage of ships, and other 
places where the cubic yard and foot are used. The thousandth part of the cubic meter (1 cubic 
decimeter) is called the Liter. 

For very small volumes the cubic centimeter (cc or cm3) is used. This volume of water 
weighs a gram, which is the unit of weight or mass. There are about 16 cubic centimeters in a 
cubic inch. The cubic centimeter is the unit of volume used by chemists as well as in pharmacy, 
medicine, surgery and other technical work. One thousand cubic centimeters make 1 liter. 

UNITS OF CAPACITY 

milli-liter equals .001 liter 

centi-liter equals .01 liter 

deci-liter equals .1 liter 

LITER equals 1 liter 

deka-liter equals 10 liter 

hecto-liter equals 100 liter 

kilo-liter equals 1000 liter 

The hectoliter (100 liters) serves the same purposes as the United States bushel (2,150.42 
cubic inches), and is equal to about 3 bushels, or a barrel. A peck is about 9 liters. The liter is 
used for measurements commonly given in the gallon, the liquid and dry quarts, a liter being 5 
per cent larger than our liquid quart and 10 per cent smaller than the dry quart. A liter of water 
weighs exactly a kilogram, i. e., 1,000 grams. A thousand liters of water weighs 1 metric ton. 

UNITS OF WEIGHT (OR MASS) 



milli-gram equals 
centi-gram equals 
deci-gram equals 
GRAM equals 
deka-gram equals 



.001 gram 

.01 gram 

.1 gram 

1 gram 

10 gram 



hecto-gram equals 100 gram 

kilo-gram equals 1000 gram 

Measurements commonly expressed in gross tons or short tons are stated in metric tons (1,000 
kilograms). The metric ton comes between our long and short tons and serves the purpose of both. 
The kilogram and "half kilo" serve for every day trade, the latter being 10 per cent larger than 
the pound. The kilogram is approximately 2.2 pounds. The gram and its multiples and divisions 
are used for the same purposes as ounces, pennyweights, drams, scruples and grains. For foreign 
postage, 30 grams is the legal equivalent of the avoir dupois ounce. 

—87— 



EQUIVALENTS OF METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

In the metric system multiples of the units are expressed by the use of the Greek prefix deca, 
hecto and kilo, which indicates, respectively, tens, hundreds, and thousands; decimal parts of 
the unit are expressed by use of the Latin prefix deci, centi, and milli, which indicates, respect- 
ively, tenth, hundredth and thousandth. For all practical purposes 1 cubic decimeter equals 
1 liter, and 1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram or 1 kilo, as it is generally abbreviated. In^the 
tables following are comparisons of the customary and metric units. 



1 millimeter (mm) equals 0.03937 inch. 

1 centimeter (cm) equals 0.3937 inch. 

1 meter (m) equals 3.28083 feet. 

1 meter equals 1.093611 yards. 

1 kilometer (km) equals 0.62137 mile. 



LENGTHS 

1 inch equals 25.4001 millimeters. 
1 inch equals 2.54001 centimeters. 
1 foot equals 0.304801 meter. 
1 yard equals 0.914402 meters. 
1 mile equals 1.60935 kilometers. 



AREAS 

lillimeter equals 0.00155 square inch. 1 square inch equals 645.16 square millimeters. 



1 square luiiiiiiieLer equais u.uuioo »quart; lui 
1 square centimeter equals 0.155 square inch 
1 square meter equals 10.764 square feet. 
1 square meter equals 1.196 square yards. 
1 square kilometer equals 0.3861 square mile 
1 hectare equals 2.471 acres. 



1 square inch equals 6.452 square centimeters. 
1 square foot equals 0.0929 square meter. 
1 square yard equals 0.8361 square meter. 
1 square mile equals 2.59 square kilometers. 
1 acre equals 0.4047 hectare. 



VOLUMES 



1 cubic centimeter equals 0.061 cubic inch. 
1 cubic meter equals 35.314 cubic feet. 
1 cubic meter equals 1.3079 cubic yards. 



1 cubic inch equals 16.3872 cubic centimeters. 
1 cubic foot equals 0.02832 cubic meter. 
1 cubic yard equals 0.7645 cubic meter. 



1 milliliter equals 0.03381 liquid ounce. 

1 milliliter equals 0.2705 dram 

1 miUiliter equals 0.8115 scruple. 

1 liter equals 1.05668 liquid quarts. 

1 liter equals 0.26417 gallon. 

1 liter equals 0.9081 dry quart. 

1 liter equals 0.11351 peck. 

1 dekaliter equals 1.1381 pecks. 

1 hectoliter (hi.) equals 2.83774 bushels. 



CAPACITIES 

1 liquid ounce equals 29.574 milliliters. 

1 dram equals 3.6967 milliliters. 

1 scruple equals 1.2322 milliliters. 

1 liquid quart equals 0.94636 liter. 

1 gallon equals 3.78543 liters. 

1 dry quart equals 1.1012 liters. 

1 peck equals 8.80982 liters. 

1 peck equals 0.881 dekaliter. 

1 bushel equals 0.35239 hectoliter. 



1 gram equals 15.4324 grains. 

1 gram equals 0.03527 avoir, ounce. 

1 gram equals 0.03215 troy ounce. 

1 kilogram (kg.) equals 2.20462 avoir, pounds. 

1 kilogram equals 2.67923 troy pounds. 



MASSES 

1 grain equals 0.0648 gram. 



1 avoir, ounce equals 28.3495 grams. 
1 troy ounce equals 31.10348 grams. 
1 avoir, pound equals 0.45359 kilogram. 
1 troy pound equals 0.37324 kilogram. 



Note: The unit of lumber measure is called the "Stere" and is .equal to the cubic meter. 



COMPARISON OF THE VARIOUS POUNDS'AND TONS IN USE IN THE UNITED 

STATES 
1 Troy Pound Equals 

0.822857 Avoirdupois Pounds. 
0.37324 Kilograms. 
0.00041143 Short Tons. 
0.00036735 Long Tons. 
0.00037324 Metric Tons. 



1 Avoirdupois Pound Equals 

1.21528 Troy Pounds. 
0.45359 Kilograms. 
0.0005 Short Tons. 

0.00044643 Long Tons. 
0.00045359 Metric Tons. 



1 Kilogram Equals 

2.67923 Troy Pounds. 
2.20462 Avoirdupois Pounds. 
0.00110231 Short Tons. 
0.00098421 Long Tons. 
0.001 Metric Tons. 

1 Long Ton Equals 

2722.22 Troy Pounds. 

2240 Avoirdupois Pounds. 

1016.05 Kilograms. 

1.12 Short Tons. 

1.01605 Metric Tons. 



1 Short Ton Equals 

2430.56 Troy Pounds. 
2000 Avoirdupois Pounds. 

907.18 Kilograms. 

0.89287 Long Tons. 

0.90718 Metric Tons. 

1 Metric Ton Equals 

2679.23 Troy Pounds. 
2204.62 Avoirdupois Pounds. 
1000 Kilograms. 

1.10231 Short Tons. 

0.98421 Long Tons. 



Note: 



ibic meter of water weighs a metric ton and is equal to one kiloliter. The cubic 



meter is used in the place of the cubic yard and is about 30 per cent larger. 



THE METRIC UNIT OF LUMBER MEASURE 

The unit of lumber measure is called the Stere, and is equal to the cubic meter. 

1 Stere (cubic meter) equals 35.314 Cubic Feet. 

1 Cubic foot equals 0.028317 Cubic Steres. 

1 Stere equals 0.2759 Cords. 

1 Cord (128 cubic feet) equals 3.624 Steres. 
The term Stere is from the Greek stereos, meaning solid. 

WEIGHT 
One Stere or cubic meter of Green Douglas Fir contains 423.7734 Board Feet and weighs 
approximately 1413 pounds or 636 kilograms. 

1 Metric Ton equals 0.984206 Long Tons. 

1 Metric Ton equals 1.102311 Short Tons. 

1 Metric Ton equals 1000. Kilograms. 

1 Metric Ton equals 2204.62234 Pounds. 

1000 Board Feet Green Douglas Fir weighs 3333 Pounds. 

1000 Board Feet Green Douglas Fir weighs 1512 Kilograms. 

METHOD USED FOR COMPUTING APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF FOREIGN EXPORT 
CARGO SHIPMENTS OF DOUGLAS FIR 

1000 Board Feet weighs \]4 Long Tons. 
1000 Board Feet weighs IK Metric Tons. 
1 Board Foot weighs 1>2 Kilograms. 
One Petrograd Standard of 165 cubic feet (1980 board feet) weighs 6593 pounds or 2970 
kilograms. 

HOW TO CUT METRIC LENGTHS 

Orders from France and Belgium usually call for lengths of lumber to be cut to the metric 
foot, which represents the third part of a meter. 

The required length is equivalent to 133^ inches. The thickness and width usually corres- 
pond to English measure. 

French orders contain large amounts of 3x9 of number 2 Clear and better grade. 

HOW TO FIGURE METRIC ORDERS 
To convert Metric to English lengths, multiply by 35 and divide by 32, or to the Metric Feet 
add one-twelfth and one-eighth of one-twelfth. 

the following items of 3x9 cut to Metric 



Metric Lineal Feet. 



How many feet, 


Boai 


rd Measu 


re, are contained in the fo 


Process: 










Pes. 




Size 


Met. Ft. 


Extensions 


60 
114 
112 

40 
60 




3x9 
3x9 
3x9 
3x9 
3x9 


12 
14 
16 
18 

20 


720 
1,596 
1,792 

720 
1,200 


386 








6,028 
502.33 
62.79 




6,593.12 

2}i 




13,186.24 
1,648.28 



English Lineal Feet. 



14,834.52 Feet Board Measure. 

The addition of the extensions shows the number of Metric Lineal Feet, the line below shows 
that amount divided by 12, and this in turn is divided by 8. 

The total thus obtained shows the English Lineal Feet. This is brought to Board Measure 
in the usual way by multiplying by 2.'<. 

FOUR METERS OR THIRTEEN FEET 
The favorite length used in France and Continental Europe. 

In all parts of France and the Continent of Europe, four meters, which is the equivalent to 
thirteen feet, is a length that is liked very much, is in great demand and preferred to all others. 

When executing orders for Continental Europe, special efforts should be made to produce 
a large percentage of thirteen feet lengths, as it will be appreciated by the buyer who is often 
willing to pay an extra price for this accommodation. 

THREE BY NINE 
The favorite size used in France and Continental Europe. 

In France and Continental Europe the equivalent of 3x9 inches in the clear and merchantable 
grades is the favorite standard. 

The size required according to the metric measurement is 75 millimeters in thickness, and 
225 millimeters in width, consequently lumber cut 3x9 inches is a shade full both ways, this allows 
for natural shrinkage, a point appreciated by the export buyer, who invariably prefers lumber 
cut full in width and thickness. 

In Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and other British countries there is 
a very great demand for 3x9 especially in the merchantable grades. • 

To facilitate the work of comparing inches to millimeters and millimeters to inches refer to 
the conversion table on the following page. 

—89— 



TO COMPUTE METRIC DRAFT 

of foreiga ships use the metric system, and the draft is painted on the 
'essel in meters and twentieth parts of a meter, as follows: 



French and a numbe 
forward and after end of 

The height of figures and distance between figures is uniform, 
i. e. : each figure is one-tenth of a meter (3.937 inches) in height, and 
the blank distance between figures is also one-tenth of a meter. 

Each advancing meter is indicated by the letter "M" to the 
right of the numeral. 

For example: Presume the draft water line is at the bottom of 
60, and the first figure representing the meters above the water line 
is 4M, the draft would be 3.60 meters or 11.811 feet (11 ft. 9U in.). 
If the water line was level with the top of the figure 60, the draft would 
then be 3. 70 meters or 12.139 feet (12 ft. IJ^ in.). 



60 

40 

20 

3M 

80 

60 

40 

20 

2M 



TO CONVERT METRIC TO ENGLISH DRAFT 
Rule: To convert the metric draft to English feet, multiply the meters by 3.281. 
Example: Find the number of English feet when the draft is 7.20 meters? 
Operation: 7.20 times 3.281 equals 23.6232 feet (23 ft. 7K in.) Multiplying the meters 
by 105 and dividing by 32 gives the same result. 

TO CONVERT ENGLISH TO METRIC DRAFT 
Rule: To convert English to Metric draft, multiply the feet by 3.048. 

Example: Find the number of Meters, when the English draft in feet is 23 ft. 7>^2 inches 
(23.6232 feet). 

Operation: 23.6232 times 3.048 equals 7.20035136 Meters. 

The same result is obtained by multiplying the English feet by 32 and dividing by 105. 
Example: Find the numbers of meters, where the English draft is 21 feet. 
Operation: 21 multiplied by 32 equals 672; 672 divided by 105 equals 6.40 meters. 
USEFUL TABLES FOR CONVERTING DRAFT EQUIVALENTS OF DECIMAL AND 
BINARY FRACTIONS OF AN INCH IN MILLIMETERS 

Decimals 

Millimeters of an Inch 

0.397 0.015625 

.794 .03125 

1.588 .0625 

3.175 .1250 

6.350 .2500 

12.700 .5 

0.254 



Fractions 
of an Inch 
1/64 
1/32 
1/16 
1/8 
1/4 
1/2 
1/100 
I nches to H 

1 equals 

2 equals 

3 equals 

4 equals 101.6002 

5 equals 127.0003 

6 equals 152.4003 

7 equals 177.8004 

8 equals 203.2004 

9 equals 228.6005 

10 equals 254.0006 

11 equals 279.4006 

12 equals 304.8006 



equals 
equals 
equals 
equals 
equals 
equals 
equals 

illimeters 

25.4001 

50.8001 

76.2002 



Millimeters to Inches 

1 equals 0.03937 

2 equals 0.07874 

3 equals 0.11811 

4 equals 0.15748 

5 equals 0.19685 

6 equals 0.23622 

7 equals 0.27559 

8 equals 0.31496 

9 equals 0.35433 

10 equals 0.39370 

11 equals 0.43307 

12 equals 0.47244 



U. S. Miles to 
Kilometers 




Kilometers to 
U. S. Miles 


Nautical Miles 
to Kilometers 


Kilometers to 
Nautical Miles 


1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7 


1.6093 

3.2187 

4.8280 

6.4374 

8.0467 

9.6561 

11.2654 

12.8748 

- 14.4841 

..16.0935 


1. 

3- 
4_ 
5. 
6- 

8_ 
9 
10. 


0.62137 

1.24274 

1.86411 

2.48548 

3.10685 

3.72822 

4.34959 


1 1.8532 

2 3.7065 

3 5.5597 

4 7.4130 

5 9.2662 

6 11.1195 

7 12.9727 


1 0.53959 

2 1.07919 

3 1.61878 

4 2.15837 

5 2.69796 

6 3.23756 

7 . .3.77715 


8 


4.97096 

5.59233 

6.21370 


8 14.8260 


8 . 4.31674 


9. 
10 


9 16.6792 

10 18.5325 


9 4.85634 

10 5.39593 



-90- 



METRIC SYSTEM— Continued 
CONVERSION TABLES 



CONVERSION OF FEET 


TO METERS 


CONVERSION OF METERS TO FEET 


Feet 


Meters 


Feet 


Meters 


Meters 


Feet 


Meters 


Feet 


1 


... 0.30480 


51... 


15.54483 


J 


--. 3.28083 


51---- 


..167.32250 


2__-- 


... .60960 


52... 


15.84963 


2 


--. 6.56167 


52-... 


..170.60333 


3 


... .91440 


53... 


....16.15443 


3.... 


... 9.84250 


53 - - - - 


.-173.88417 


4 


... 1.21920 


54... 


16.45923 


4 


--. 13.12333 


54 


--177.16500 


5 


... 1.52400 


55... 


--.-16.76403 


5.-.- 


.. 16.40417 


55 


-.180.44583 


6.... 


... 1.82880 


56... 


.-..17.06883 


6---- 


--- 19.63500 


56-.-. 


--183.72667 


7_._- 


... 2.13360 


57... 


.-..17.37363 


7 


--. 22.96583 


57.... 


.-187.00750 


8..-. 


- .. 2.43840 


58... 


17.67844 


8 


... 26.24667 


58-.-. 


..190.28833 


9 


... 2.74321 


59... 


17.98324 


9 


--. 29.52750 


59.... 


..193.56917 


10 


... 3.04801 


60... 


18.28804 


10.... 


... 32.80833 


60.... 


..196.85000 


11 


... 3.35281 


61... 


18.59284 


11 


. 36.08917 


61 


..200.13083 


12 


... 3.65761 


62... 


18.89764 


12---- 


... 39.37000 


62 


.-203.41167 


13 


... 3.96241 


63... 


19.20244 


13.... 


--. 42.65083 


63 


-.206.69250 


14 


... 4.26721 


64... 


19.50724 


14 


-. 45.93167 


64.... 


-209.97333 


15 


... 4.57201 


65... 


19.81204 


15 


--. 49.21250 


65.... 


--213.25417 


16 


... 4.87681 


66... 


20.11684 


16... 


--. 52.49333 


66..-- 


--216.53500 


17 


... 5.18161 


67... 


20.42164 


17---- 


... 55.77417 


67.... 


--219.81583 


18 


... 5.48641 


68... 


-..-20.72644 


18---- 


... 59.05500 


68 


..223.09667 


19 


... 5.79121 


69... 


--..21.03124 


19--.- 


... 62.33583 


69 


..226.37750 


20.. ._ 


... 6.09601 


70... 


21.33604 


20---. 


--. 65.61667 


70.... 


-229.65833 


21 


... 6.40081 


71... 


21.64084 


21 


--. 68.89750 


71.... 


-232.93917 


22 


... 6.70561 


72... 


21.94564 


22 


... 72.17833 


72 


..2.36.22000 


23 


... 7.01041 


73... 


.-..22.25044 


23---- 


... 75.45917 


73 


..239.50083 


24 


... 7.31521 


74... 


----22.55525 


24-... 


... 78.74000 


74 


-.242.78167 


25 


... 7.62002 


75.- _ 


22.86005 


25.-.. 


-.. 82.02083 


75 


--246.06250 


26 


... 7.92482 


76... 


23.16485 


26 - - - - 


... 85.30167 


76---- 


--249.34333 


27 


... 8.22962 


77-. - 


23.46965 


27 


... 88.58250 


77 


--252.62417 


28 


... 8.53442 


78... 


23.77445 


28.... 


-.- 91.86333 


78.... 


--255.90500 


29 


... 8.83922 


79... 


24.07925 


29---- 


... 95.14417 


79---- 


--259.18583 


30 


... 9.14402 


80... 


24.38405 


30---- 


--. 98.42500 


80-... 


-262.46667 


31 


... 9.44882 


81--- 


-...24.68885 


31--.. 


...101.70583 


81 


--265.74750 


32 


. .. 9.75362 


82--. 


24.99365 


32 


-..104.98667 


82 


-.269.02833 


33 


_ ..10.05842 


83... 


25.29845 


33 


--.108.26750 


83... 


..272.30917 


34 


...10.36322 


84.-- 


25.60325 


34.... 


...111.54833 


84---- 


.-275.59000 


35- ... 


...10.66802 


85... 


25.90805 


35.. - 


-.114.82917 


85 


278.87083 


36 


...10.97282 


86... 


26.21285 


36..-. 


...118.11000 


86 ... 


..282.15167 


37 


...11.27762 


87--- 


26.51765 


37.... 


.--121.39083 


87..-- 


-.285.43250 


38 


...11.58242 


88... 


26.82245 


38 


...124.67167 


88 


--288.71333 


39 


. ..11.88722 
...12.19202 


89... 
90--- 


27.12725 

27.43205 


39.... 
40---- 


...127.95250 
_-. 131.23.333 


89 


--291.99417 


40 


90-.-- 


-.295.27500 


41 


...12.49682 


91... 


27.73686 


41-.-. 


-.-134.51417 


91 


--298.55583 


42 


...12.80163 


92... 


28.04166 


42.... 


...137.79500 


92 


-.301.83667 


43 


...13.10643 


93--- 


--..28.34646 


43---- 


.--141.07583 


93 


--305.11750 


44 


...13.41123 


94... 


28.65126 


44 


--.144.35667 


94 


--308.39833 


45 


...13.71603 


95... 


28.95606 


45 


---147.63750 


95-... 


--311.67917 


46.... 


...14.02083 


96.-- 


29.26086 


46 


---150.91833 


96..-. 


-314.96000 


47 


...14.32563 


97... 


29.56566 


47--.- 


.--154.19917 


97.... 


-.318.24083 


48. 


...14.63043 
...14.93523 


98--- 
99... 


29.87046 

30.17526 


48---- 
49.... 


---157.48000 
.--160.76083 


98 


321.52167 


49 


99 


-324.80250 


50 


...15.24003 


100... 


30.48006 


50---- 


---164.04167 


100 


--328.08333 



-91- 



NAUTICAL WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

MEASURES OF LENGTH 

12 inches equals 1 foot 6 feet equals 1 fathom 

3 feet equals 1 yard 3 nautical miles equals 1 league. 

Sea OP Nautical Mile — one-sixtieth of a degree of latitude, and varies from 6,046 ft. on the 
Equator to 6,092 ft. in Lat. 60°. 

Nautical Mile for Speed Trials, generally called the Admiralty Measured Mile — 6,080 
feet; 1.151 statute miles; 1.853 kilometers. 

Cable's Length — the tenth of a nautical mile, or approximately 100 fathoms or 200 yards. 
A Knot — a nautical mile an hour, is a measure of speed, but is not infrequently, though 
erroneously, used as synonymous with a nautical mile. 

Length of European Measures of Distances compared with the Nautical Mile of 6,080 feet: 
Length in Length in 

Nautical Nautical 

Miles Miles 

Nautical Mile 1.000 German Ruthen 4.064 

British Statute Land Mile 0.868 Italian Mile 1.000 

Austrian Mile 4.094 Norwegian Mile 6.097 

Danish Mile 4.064 Russian Verst 0.576 

French Kilometer 0.539 Swedish Mile 5.769 

German Geographical Mile 4.000 

BRITISH SHIPPING WEIGHT 

16 ounces equals 1 pound (lb.) 

28 pounds equals 1 quarter (qr.) 

4 quarters or 112 pounds equals 1 hundredweight (cwt.) 

20 hundredweight or 2240 pounds equals 1 ton (T.) 

U. S. AND BRITISH SHIPPING MEASURES 

1 Register ton. equals 100 cubic feet. 

1 United States Shipping ton equals 40 cubic feet or 32.14 U. S. bushels or 31.16 Imperial bu. 
1 British Shipping ton equals 42 cubic feet or 32.72 Imperial bushels or 33.75 U.S. bu. 

IMMERSION IN SALT AND FRESH WATER 

To find the difference of immersion or draft in salt and fresh water: If from salt to fresh, 
multiply the draft of salt water by 36, and divide the product by 35. If from fresh to salt, multi- 
ply the draft of fresh water by 35 and divide the product by 36. 

Example: Required the draft of a vessel in fresh water when drawing 20 ft. in salt water: 
20 ft. times 36 equals 720 divided by 35 equals 20 ft. 7 in. 

BARRELS 

To find the number of gallons in a cask or barrel. 

Rule: Take all the dimensions in inches. Add the head and bung diameters and divide by 
2 for the approximate mean diameter. Square the mean diameter and multiply by the depth. 
Multiply the result by .0034 for gallons. 

Example: How many gallons are contained in a cask the bung diameter of which is 24 
inches, the head diameter, 22 inches, and the depth 30 inches!> 

Operation: 22 plus 24 equals 46 divided by 2 equals 23 (mean diameter). Square of 23 
equals 529 times 30 (depth) equals 15870. 15870 times .0034 equals 53.9 gallons. 

MEASURING TANKS 

To find the number of gallons contained in a tank. 
Rule: Multiply the cubic capacity in feet by 7.48. 
Example: How many gallons in a tank 6x6x4 feet? 

Explanation: 6 times 3 time 4 equals 72 cubic feet. 7.48 times 72 equals 538.56 gallons. 
538.56 divided by 31K equals 17.10—. bbl. 

CISTERNS 

To find the capacity of a cistern. 

Rule: Multiply the square of the diameter by the depth; this will give the cylindrical feet; 
multiply the cylindrical feet by 5% for gallons; .1865 for barrels, or .09325 for hogsheads. 

Example: How many gallons in a cistern 42 feet in diameter, 12 feet deep? 

Operation: 42 times 42 equals 1764; 1764 times 12 equals 21168; 5% times 21168 equals 
124362 gallons — Answer. 

How many barrels? — Answer, 394.8. 

—92— 



FRESH WATER EQUIVALENTS 

In the following table, one cwt. (hundredweight) equals 112 pounds, and one ton 
equals 2240 pounds. 

One Imperial gallon equals 277.27 Cubic inches. 

One Imperial gallon equals 0.16 Cubic feet. 

One Imperial gallon equals 10.00 Pounds. 

One Imperial gallon equals 4.54 Liters. 

One Imperial gallon equals 1.20 U. S. gallons. 

One U. S. gallon equals 231.00 Cubic inches. 

One U. S. gallon equals 0.134 Cubic feet. 

One U. S. gallon equals 8.33 Pounds. 

One U. S. gallon equals 0.83 Imperial gallons. 

One U. S. gallon equals 3.80 Liters. 

One pound of water equals 27.74 Cubic inches. 

One pound of water equals 0.083 U. S. gallons. 

One pound of water equals 0.10 Imperial gallons. 

One cwt. of water equals 11.2 Imperial gallons. 

One cwt. of water equals 13.44 U. S. gallons. 

One cwt. of water equals 1.79 Cubic feet. 

One ton of water equals 35.88 Cubic feet. 

One ton of water equals 223.60 Imperial gallons. 

One ton of water equals 268.80 U. S. gallons. 

One ton of water equals 1000.00 Liters (approx.) 

One ton of water equals 1.00 Cubic meter (approx.) 

One cubic inch of water equals 0.036 Pounds. 

One cubic inch of water equals 0.0036 Imperial gallons. 

One cubic inch of water. . equals 0.0043 U. S. gallons. 

One cubic foot of water equals 0.027 Ton. 

One cubic foot of water equals 0.55 Cwt. 

• One cubic foot of water equals 64.42 Pounds. 

One cubic foot of water equals 6.23 Imperial gallons. 

One cubic foot of water equals 7.48 U. S. gallons. 

One cubic foot of water equals 28.31 Liters. 

One cubic foot of water equals 0.028 Cubic meters. 

One liter of water equals 0.22 I mperial gallons. 

One liter of water equals 0.264 U. S. gallons. 

One liter of water equals 61.00 Cubic inches. 

One liter of water equals 0.0354 Cubic feet. 

One cubic meter of water equals 220.00 Imperial gallons. 

One cubic meter of water equals 264.00 U. S. gallons. 

One cubic meter of water equals 1.308 Cubic yards. 

One cubic meter of water equals 35.31 Cubic feet. 

One cubic meter of water equals 61024.00 Cubic inches. 

One cubic meter of water equals 1000.00 Kilos. 

One cubic meter of water equals 1.00 Ton (approx.) 

One cubic meter of water equals 1000.00 Liters. 

One Pood equals 3.60 Imperial gallons. 

One Eimer equals 2.70 Imperial gallons 

One Vedros equals 2.70 Imperial gallons. 

One Miners inch of water equals 10.00 Imiperial gallons (approx.) 

One column of water 1 foot high equals 0.434 Lb. pressure per sq. in. 

One column of water 1 meter high equals 1.43 Lb. pressure per sq. in. 

A pressure of 1 lb. per square inch equals 2.31 Feet of water in height. 

NOTE — The center of pressure of water against the side of the containing vessel or reservoir 
is at two-thirds the depth from the surface. 

SALT WATER EQUIVALENTS 
At 62° Fahrenheit 

One Imperial gallon equals 10.27 Pounds. 

One U. S. gallon equals 8.558 Pounds. 

One cubic foot equals 64.11 Pounds. 

One ton (2240 pounds) equals 35.00 Cubic feet. 

One ton (2240 pounds) - equals 218.11 Imperial gallons. 

One ton (2240 pounds) equals 240.00 U. S. gallons. 

One ton (2000 pounds) equals 31.20 Cubic feet. 

One ton (2000 pounds) equals 194.74 Imperial gallons. 

One ton (2000 pounds) equals 233.70 U. S. gallons. 

—93— 



TONNAGE EXPLAINED 

There are five kinds of tonnage in use in the shipping business. They are dead- 
weight tonnage, cargo tonnage, gross, net, and displacement tonnages. 

1. Deadweight Tonnage expresses the number of tons of 2,240 pounds that a vessel can 
transport of cargo, stores, and bunker fuel. It is the difference between the number of tons of 
water a vessel displaces "light" and the number of tons it displaces when submerged to the "load 
water line." Deadweight tonnage is used interchangeably with deadweight carrying capacity. 
A vessel's capacity for weight cargo is less than its total deadweight tonnage. 

2. Cargo Tonnage is either "weight" or "measurement." The weight ton in the United 
States and in British countries is the English long or gross ton of 2,240 pounds. In France and 
other countries having the metric system a weight ton is 2,204.6 pounds. A "measurement" ton 
is usually 40 cubic feet, but in some instances a larger number of cubic feet is taken for a ton. 
Most ocean package freight is taken at weight or measurement (W/M), ship's option. 

3. Gross Tonnage applies to vessels, not to cargo. It is determined by dividing by 100 
the contents, in cubic feet, of the vessel's closed-in spaces. A vessel ton is 100 cubic feet. The 
register of a vessel states both gross and net tonnage. 

4. Net Tonnage is a vessel's gross tonnage minus deductions of space occupied by accom- 
modations for crew, by machinery for navigation, by the engine room and fuel. A vessel's net 
tonnage expresses the space available for the accommodation of passengers and the stowage of 
cargo. A ton of cargo, in most instances, occupies less than 100 cubic feet; hence the vessel's cargo 
tonnage may exceed its net tonnage, and, indeed, the tonnage of cargo carried is usually greater 
than the gross tonnage. 

5. Displacement of a vessel is the weight, in tons of 2,240 pounds, of the vessel and its 
contents. Displacement "light" is the weight of the vessel without stores, bunker fuel, or cargo. 
Displacement "loaded" is the weight of the vessel, plus cargo, fuel, and stores. 

For a modern freight steamer the following relative tonnage figures would ordinarily be ap- 
proximately correct: 

Net tonnage 4,000 

Gross tonnage 6,000 

Deadweight carrying capacity 10,000 

Displacement loaded, about 13,350 

A vessel's registered tonnage, whether gross or net, is practically the same under the American 
rules and the British rules. When measured according to the Panama or Suez tonnage rules most 
vessels have larger gross and net tonnages than when measured by British or American national 
rules. 

STOWING TO SECURE MAXIMUM WEIGHT AND VOLUME 
GENERAL CARGO 

A ship properly stowed is filled completely and carries weight enough to lower it to its marks. 
If it is not completely filled, the cargo will not carry well, but will shift with the tossing by the 
waves and thereby perhaps damage the goods or endanger the vessel. If it is not completely 
weighted, it will not sail efficiently or perhaps even safely. And if neither the maximum volume 
or weight is carried the vessel will not earn maximum revenue for the voyage. This principle 
is^ of greater relative significance to the sailing vessel than to the modern steamer. 

The average steamer is more stable than the sailing vessel, and it has the power of adjusting 
its stability by use of its water ballast tanks. Moreover, because of its greater speed, its earning 
capacity depends less than the sailing vessel on the freight carried on one voyage, and more on 
the "turn around," or the number of trips it can make in a year. 

SELECTION OF A BALANCED CARGO 

The question presented to the shipowner or master, then, is that of securing freight that will 
provide the ideal combination of volume and weight. Knowing the cubical contents of the cargo 
space and the deadweight tonnage, it is easy to figure for the individual ship the kind of freight 
that will fill the vessel and lower it to its marks. Take, for example, a vessel that has a cargo space, 
including spare bunkers, of 250,000 cubic feet and a deadweight of 5,000 tons. Since the dead- 
weight capacity is the difference between the displacements of the vessel when light and when 
fully loaded, including fuel and stores, it is necessary to subtract from the 5,000 tons the weight 
of the fuel, stores, etc., in order to find the weight of the cargo. Assuming that the fuel, stores, 
etc., weigh 500 tons, 4,500 tons will represent the weight of cargo that can be carried, and dividing 
this into the cargo space gives 55^ cubic feet as the available space for each ton of cargo. 

The shipowner then would endeavor to secure freight that had an average stowage factor of 
55>^. 

It is a difficult matter to set up a figure that is an average for all vessels. Inquiry among 
shipping men leads to the conclusion that the ideal combination is obtained for the ordinary cargo 
steamer by articles having an average stowage of 52 to 55, and for the ordinary sailing vessel by 
articles having an average stowage of from 65 to 70. 

— 9<t— 



CARGO STOWAGE— Continued 
CALCULATION OF WEIGHT AND VOLUME 

A satisfactory combination of freight can be obtained by grouping commodities whose stow- 
age factors will average the proper amount. 

Thus, steel bars, whose stowage factor is about 11, may be shipped with cork, whose stowage 
factor is about 300. Any commodity that has a stowage factor of over 40 cubic feet per ton is 
called "measurement freight," and a commodity having a stowage factor of less than 40 cubic feet 
per ton is called "deadweight cargo." A simple calculation will show how much measurement and 
how much deadweight can be carried on a given vessel. Assume that the vessel is of 6,500 dead- 
weight tons and has a cargo space of .360,000 cubic feet. After deducting 500 tons for fuel and" 

stores, it is found that the number of cubic feet per deadweight ton is '——^ , or 60. Assume that 

6,000 
the measurement freight has a stowage factor of 80 and the deadweight a stowage factor of 20. 
Deduct from the average space per deadweight ton (60) the stowage factor of the deadweight cargo 
(20), and multiply the remainder (40) by the cargo tonnage of the vessel. This gives 40 times 
6,000, or 240,000. Divide by the difference between the stowage factors of the two commodities, 
which is 60. The result (4,000) is the number of tons of measurement freight that should be 
carried, and the difference between this figure and the total cargo that can be carried, or 2,000, 
is the number of tons of deadweight cargo. Working backwards it will be seen that the vessel 
under this arrangement carries the maximum weight and volume, for the weight of the two com- 
modities is 6,000 tons and the volume is 4,000 times 80 plus 2,000 times 20, or 360,000 cubic feet. 
The formula which may be used for the above computation is as follows: 



G-) 



X equals 

b — a 
In which— 

X equals number of tons taken of the lighter of two commodities. 

V equals cargo capacity in cubic feet. 

T equals total number of tons of cargo that can be carried (deadweight 

tonnage less tonnage of fuel, stores, etc.). 
a equals stowage factor of the heavier commodity, 
b equals stowage factor of the lighter commodity. 
In the illustration just given, substitution would be made as follows: 



(360,000 \ 
20) 
6,000 /€ 



'6,000 (60—20) 6,000 

X equals equals equals 4,000 tons of measurement cargo. 

80—20 60 

DOUGLAS FIR CARGO SHIPMENTS 
POINTERS FOR SHIPOWNERS ON LUMBER CARRYING CAPACITY OF STEAMERS 

When figuring on the lumber carrying capacity of steamers, allowance must be made for 
bunker coal, stores, provisions, boiler and feed water, water ballast, type of vessel, and height of 
deckload she will safely carry, also proportion of sizes and lengths in the lumber specifications 
suitable for stowage on deck and in the various compartments under deck, the number of timbers 
to be carried, and whether short lumber, pickets and or lath will be supplied for broken stowage. 

In a large number of instances specifications contain every requisite for making good stow- 
age, but it is of no avail if the lengths and sizes are not piled on the dock prior to shipment so as 
to be available at the right time and place to fill the various compartments. 

If the lumber for shipment is not placed on the dock right, poor stowage and a great decrease 
in the amount of cargo the vessel should carry will be the result and the time of loading will often 
be increased several days. 

Poor stowage under deck results in vessel becoming top heavy, and consequently the usual 
height of deckload cannot be carried, as extra ballast tanks have to be filled to stiffen vessel and 
keep her upright. 

This seriously affects the cargo carrying capacity of a vessel; for instance, filling a ballast 
tank of 300 tons would decrease the amount of cargo carried by 200,000 board feet of lumber. 

When a steamer lists before she has a reasonable deckload, the cause should be investigated. 
There arc instances where the fuel for main or donkey boilers is taken from one side of the upper 
portion of bunkers, emptying or filling a boiler, feeding water in boilers from one side of an engine 
tank with a central division, filling or emptying ballast tanks, or slack water in ballast tanks; 
the latter being the principal cause. 

TO COMPUTE LUMBER CARRYING CAPACITY UNDER DECK 

To compute lumber carrying capacity of a steamer, ascertain from the builder's plan the 
cubical capacity (bale space) of the various compartments, add together and multiply the total 
by 8J^; the result will be the capacity in board feet. 

Example: How much lumber in board feet will a steamer carry under deck with a total 
cargo carrying capacity of 300,000 cubic feet (bale space) .^ 

Operation: 300,000 x 8}-^ equals 2,500,000, the amount in board feet. 

Note: To multiply by 8}^ add two ciphers and divide by 12. 

—9.5— 



TO COMPUTE LUMBER CARRYING CAPACITY OF A STEAMER 

To ascertain the deadweight lumber carrying capacity of a steamer, the following particulars 
should be obtained: 

Distance between sailing and discharging port. 
Speed of vessel, and daily coal consumption. 
Weight of ship's stores and provisions. 
Estimate of water ballast required. 
Bunker coal necessary for voyage. 
The first thing to do is to find out from the builder's plan, owners or officers of vessel, the 
speed in knots per hour and daily coal consumption; then compute the bunker coal required for the 
voyage as follows: 

Example: How much bunker coal will a steamer consume on a voyage from Seattle, Wash., 
U. S. A., to Sydney, N. S. W., Australia, the distance being 6829 nautical miles, speed 8 knots 
(nautical miles) per hour, and the daily consumption 29 tons of coal? 

Multiply the knots (8) by 24; this gives the distance traveled per day. Then divide the re- 
sult (192) into the distance between loading and discharging port. In this case it is 6829 nautical 
miles; the answer will be the number of days occupied on voyage. Now multiply the number of 
days by the coal consumption (29) and you will have the bunker coal required for the voyage. 

Operation: 8x24 equals 192, the daily speed. 6829 divided by 192 equals 35.57, the number 
of days on voyage. 35.57x29 equals 1031.53, the amount of bunker coal in tons required for the 
voyage. 

Note: It is customary to allow a few days reserve coal so that if steamer meets with an 
accident or bad weather the extra coal should enable her to reach port in safety. In this case an 
allowance of three days reserve coal should suffice. 

METHOD OF ESTIMATING DEADWEIGHT TOTALS BEFORE OR AFTER LOADING 
Capacity of vessel 7200 tons deadweight. Tons 

Bunker coal 1031 

Bunker coal, reserve 87 

Water ballast 400 

Engine tank, fresh water 182 

Stores and provisions 75 

Fresh drinking water 25 

1800 
3,600,000 ft. @ IH tons per 1000 ft 5400 

7200 
The ordinary tramp steamer with coal for bunker fuel will not stand up with a high deckload 
without water ballast, therefore in the foregoing estimate a fair allowance has been made. 

TO COMPUTE LUMBER CARRYING CAPACITY OF A STEAMER ON DECK 

This is practically impossible, as so much depends on the stowage of cargo under deck, and 
also the height at which the bunker coal is stowed, whether it is winter or summer loading, the 
type and beam of vessel and amount of water ballast required. 

When estimating on the amount of deckload always take the possible height into consideration, 
and remember that a steamer cannot carry more than her deadweight according to displacement 
scale. 

The trick in loading steamers with lumber is to load them with the minimum of water ballast, 
and that can only be done by having an expert supervise the assembling or piling of the cargo be- 
forehand, and taking advantage of every point during loading. This will greatly assist the steve- 
dore, the mill company and ship's officers, and be of immense benefit to all concerned. 

POINTERS ON STABILITY AND FILLING BALLAST TANKS 

Steamers engaged in the lumber trade should have a wide beam in proportion to their draft, 
this gives a fairly high position of the metacenter and enough margin of stability to enable a coal 
burning steamer to carry sufficient deckload to put her down to her marks with one or two of the 
double bottom ballast tanks filled with water ballast. 

It is ordy under exceptionally favorable conditions, and in very rare instances, that a coal 
burning vessel, carrying a cargo of Douglas Fir can be safely loaded to her marks without filling 
one or more of her double bottom tanks. 

The ordinary run of cargo steamers engaged in transporting Douglas Fir from the Pacific Coast 
to Foreign Ports will carry a total cargo of about 3,500,000 to 5,000,000 board feet. The ordinary 
summer deckloads range from 700,000 to 1,000,000 board feet, with an average height of from 
10 to 16 feet. There are numerous instances of steamers having been loaded with a full cargo 
of lumber on the Pacific Coast with a sixteen foot deckload, upright when finished, and only slightly 
tender. 

It is not policy to load a steamer with a very high deckload, unless she has reserve (empty) 
double bottom tanks, which can be filled if necessary, in case the coal consumed during the voyage 
should cause the steamer to become unduly tender. As it is expedient to first fill the large double 
bottom tanks in the body of the ressel before the under deck cargo is completed, it only leaves 
the smaller capacity tanks empty, thus minimizing the danger of filling tanks at sea should the 
emergency arise. 

In filling double bottom tanks with a central division, it is a good idea to run up both sides at 
once, even in cases where the vessel has a decided list. As an example, assume a steamer has a 
list to port, it is not always advisable to try and take the list out by filling the starboard side of 
one or more tanks, for as soon as the added weight is sufficient to bring the vessel to an upright 
position she will then fall over to the opposite side, owing to the sudden shifting of the center of 
gravity, this usually causes a series of oscillations from side to side, often with such rapidity and 
violence of motion that the cargo will shift and the structure of the vessel become seriously strained. 

Avoid filling the tanks of a tender steamer at a time when cargo is being worked, for should 
the vessel take a sudden list the lives of the crew and longshoremen would be endangered through 
tiers falling down or loads of lumber that are being hoisted aboard, getting out of control of the 
winch drivers and swinging from side to side of the vessel. 

If it becomes necessary to fill the tanks of a steamer that has a deckload of about six feet or 
more in height, it is advisable as a precautionary measure to temporarily secure the deckload with 
a few lashings, as this may prevent cargo shifting or part of the deckload going over the side in case 
of the vessel taking a sudden list. 

—96— 



STOWAGE OF CROSSINGS 

Orders of Douglas Fir railroad ties (sleepers) from Great Britain, usually contain about ten 
per cent crossings (switch ties), but they are not always shipped according to the foregoing per- 
centage, some cargoes contain all ties, and some contain about thirty per cent crossings. In in- 
stances where a large percentage of crossings are shipt)ed there will be a loss of ten to fifteen per 
cent in stowage under deck compared to ties, if they are not delivered to the vessel so that they 
can be stowed on the floor of the forward holds, preferably the number "2" and in the after holds 
above the level of the shaft alley (tunnel) and the floor of the 'tween decks. Ties should be re- 
served for small compartments, winging up and beamfilling. 

A number of firms charter vessels and expect good stowage results when they do not give to 
the mill or mills supplying the cargo, any intelligent instructions regarding the segregation of 
orders, sizes, or lengths or the manner in which the lumber is to be piled or delivered to the vessel. 

It is customary to blame the stevedore for poor stowage under deck when the fault in most 
instances lies in the shipper not delivering the cargo alongside at the right time and place to enable 
the stevedore to make decent stowage. 

Western saw mills catering to the export trade are noted for their ability and willingness to 
do everything in their power to deliver orders for cargo shipment so as to facilitate the loading 
and despatch of vessels at their docks, but it frequently happens that their good work and in- 
tentions are nullified through their not receiving correct piling instructions or orders of loading, 
with the result that the vessel does not carry a capacity load and often leaves either on the lighters 
or dock of mills supplying the cargo amounts varying from one hundred thousand to half a million 
board feet of lumber that the vessel could easily have carried, had the cago been correctly piled 
and delivered. 

HOW TO DUNNAGE AN IRON DECK 

Before cargo is placed on an iron deck, the deck should be dunnaged with rough boards, one 
inch in thickness, placed diagonally on the deck, and spaced about three feet between pieces; 
lumber 6 to 12 inches wide is preferable to narrower widths, as the heavy weight of the deckload 
will press and cut into the first coarse of lumber laid on top of the dunnage, if narrow widths are 
used. 

The reason for using rough sawn dunnage is that there is a possibility of the deckload shifting 
on the smooth surface of dressed lumber when the steamer rolls from side to side in heavy weather. 
Placing dunnage diagonally on deck is to equalize the pressure on the deck beams. 

Decks are dunnaged to prevent the deck cargo from being stained by oil running from the 
winches and to guard against the cargo turning black from coming into contact with iron or steel. 

The space between the dunnage boards gives enough clearance to allow the drainage water to 
run off the deck. 

STANCHIONS FOR DECKLOAD 

The ordinary size used for deck stanchions on steamers is 6x12 inches or its equivalent, they 
should be spaced 8 to 10 feet apart, and placed so as to have a slight incline inwards, and in such 
a position that they do not obscure the vessels side lights. Stanchions should exceed the height 
of the deckload by at least four feet, for instance, if it is expected that the vessel will carry a four- 
teen foot deckload, use stanchions 18 feet long, this allows sufficient height above the deckload 
to attach the regulation guard ropes. 

Stanchions used for security of the deckload, and taken out of sizes that are tallied as cargo 
should not be charged to the ship. When stanchions of suitable size, length, and grade cannot 
be obtained from cargo; it is customary to order them from the mill company, and in this case 
they are charged to the ship's account. 

DECKLOAD LASHING 

The custom of a number of ship owners that cling to the old fashioned idea of using the ships 
running gear for lashing purposes is a costly one, as it not only destroys the wire cable for further 
use as ships gear, but it often delays the sailing of the vessel for several hours,' owing to the length 
of time it takes to secure the deckload when wire cable is used for lashing purposes. 

It takes the ordinary ships crew five to ten hours to lash a deckload with wire cable, when 
the same crew could do the work of lashing in less than an hour's time if chain lashing and deckload 
turnbuckles were substituted. 

CHAINS AND TURNBUCKLES REQUIRED TO LASH DECKLOAD 

The average length of an ordinary well deck steamer is as follows: Fore deck 100 feet, after 
deck 100 feet. 

Chain lashings on deckloads should be spaced 10 feet apart, one end of chain should be secured 
to a ring bolt on deck and the other end run through the link on turnbuckle. 



The following comprises a set of turnbuckles and chains necessary to secure a 16 foot deckload 
on a steamer with a forward and after deck, each 100 feet long. 
16 Deckload Turnbuckles, 
32 J^ Galvanized Chains, each 45 feet long with ring in one end. 

DECKLOAD OF RAILROAD TIES 

When shipping a straight deckload of railroad ties or short lumber of a uniform length, it is 
advisable to wall the outside or wing tiers of the deckload with long lengths if obtainable. 

Sometimes the operators buy desirable lengths for this purpose and take the chance of selling 
them on arrival at destination. 

A better proposition is, if possible, to arrange with the shippers to supply lengths in multiples 
of the size being shipped. 

If this can be satisfactorily arranged, the captain or agents should give a written guarantee 
that the said long lengths will be sawn at ship's expense on arrival of vessel at port of discharge, 
into the shorter lengths called for in the specification. 



-97— 



ADVANTAGES OF OIL AS FUEL FOR STEAMERS 
CARRYING LUMBER 

As the ordinary cargo steamer burning coal as fuel has not the stability to load to her summer 
marks with a cargo of Douglas Fir, it is necessary to fill one or more of the double bottom ballast 
tanks to enable her to carry a full deckload. 

A fair average estimate of the amount of water ballast necessary to give the required stability 
would be six hundred long tons, this weight is equivalent to 400,000 board feet of Douglas Fir, 
which the vessel could carry under deck in the bunker or bridge space, if oil was used for fuel pur- 
poses instead of coal. 

Allowing for broken stowage, the space required to stow 400,000 board feet of Douglas Fir 
would amount to 48,000 cubic feet. In this space 1143 tons of coal at 42 cubic feet per ton could 
be stowed, which is the usual amount of bunker coal required for a voyage from the North Pacific 
Coast to Australia. 

DECKLOADS 

ADVANTAGES OF OIL OVER COAL BURNING STEAMERS 

The difference between the winter and summer draft of cargo steamers, is about six inches, 
and when computed at 45 tons per inch, gives 270 tons. This reduces the carrying capacity in 
winter by 180,000 board feet of Douglas Fir, and means that an oil burning vessel would save to 
the owners or time charterers the freight on the above^ as the amount of cargo mentioned would 
be carried in the space utilized for bunker coal. 

A most important point that must not be lost sight of and which greatly detracts from the 
winter carrying capacity is the British Government regulations on deckloads entering the United 
Kingdom during the winter months, which restricts the height of deckload to the rail, and the size 
of the largest piece to 15 cubic feet, the equivalent of 180 board feet. 

The ordinary well deck cargo steamer would carry a deckload of 250,000 to 350,000 board 
feet of Douglas Fir if stowed to the top of the rail, or about 42 inches in height. 

After considering the foregoing it is very apparent that the oil burning steamer has a decided 
advantage when carrying a cargo of lumber, over one burning coal and to better elucidate the sub- 
ject, the following details of a modern steamer loaded with a fair average cargo of ties are given 
as an illustration. 

Canadian Steamer Margaret Coughlan cleared from Genoa Bay, British Columbia, 
October 28, 1920, bound for England with a cargo of 5x10 — 8' 6" Douglas Fir Railroad 
Ties (Sleepers). 

UNDER DECK 

Capacity in Amount of 

Under Deck Cubic Feet Cargo in 

Compartments Bale Space Board Feet 

No. 1 Tween Deck 26,520 274,796 

No. 1 Hold 63,370 607,998 

No. 2 Tween Deck 45,200 495,833 

No. 2 Hold 71,409 719,313 

No. 3 Tween Deck "Aft" 59,260 619,792 

No. 3 Hold "Aft" --- 104,524 992,552 

Forecastle - -- 7,656 58,862 

Bridge Space 39,500 395,923 

Tween Deck Bunkers - -- 14,995 99,946 

Deep Tank --- 18,700 162,917 

Hatches -- 5,000 54,932 

Total Under Deck 456,134 4,482,864 

ON DECK 

Winter loading for the United Kingdom with deckload stowed to height of rail 
277,915 Board Feet. 

TOTALS 

4,482,864 Board Feet Under Deck 
277,915 Board Feet On Deck 

4,760,779 Board Feet Total Cargo. 

HOW THE S. S. "MARGARET COUGHLAN" STOWED UNDER DECK 

The total cubic bale space multiplied by 9.83 equalled the amount of cargo loaded 
under deck. 

One thousand board feet stowed in 101% cubic feet bale space. 

The total cargo stowed under deck equalled 81.9 per cent of the total cubic bale 
space. 

In computing capacity according to percentage of bale space, do not forget to mul- 
tiply the cubic feet by 12 to bring same to board feet. 

—98— 



DEADWEIGHT COMPARISON 

WINTER LOADING FOR UNITED KINGDOM 

AS AN OIL BURNER 

The Steamer "Margaret Coughlan" is used for an example showing amount of cargo 
actually carried and total deadweight when loaded to the rail. 

Under Deck 4,482,864 Board Feet equals 6,724 Long Tons 

On Deck '.... 277,915 Board Feet .equals 417 Long Tons 



Total Cargo - 4,760,779 Board Feet equals 7,141 Long Tons 

Fresh Water in After Peak for Boiler Feed.. equals 83 Long Tons 

Fresh Water for Galley Purposes -- - - equals 30 Long Tons 

Ship's Stores - ..equals 75 Long Tons 

Fuel Oil - equals 722 Long Tons 

Deadweight when loaded, Draft 23 ft. 1 in 8,051 Long Tons 

Deadweight at winter marks. Draft 23 ft. 9 In 8,454 Long Tons 

AS A COAL BURNER 

Estimated amount of cargo and total deadweight when loaded to the rail. 

Under Deck ..4,035,737 Board Feet ..equals 6,054 Long Tons 

On Deck.. 277,915 Board Feet equals 417 Long Tons 



Total Cargo. 4,313,652 Board Feet ..equals 6,471 Long Tons 

Fresh Water after Peak for Boiler Feed equals 83 Long Tons 

Fresh Water for Galley Purposes equals 30 Long Tons 

Ships Stores .- - .equals 75 Long Tons 

Bunker Coal - equals 1,083 Long Tons 

Estimated Total Deadweight --- 7,742 Long Tons 

By referring to the deadweight of fuel oil in the example, "As an oil burner" you will note 
that the amount is 722 tons, and that the deadweight of the bunker coal in the example, "As a 
coal burner" is 1083 tons, the reason for this is, that one ton of fuel oil gives the same result as 
1.5 to 1.6 tons of coal, according to quality. 

In this case the fuel oil is computed at 1.5, which equals 1083 tons. 

Bunker coal is usually estimated at 42 cubic feet per ton, hence 1083 (the tons of coal) multi- 
plied by 42 equals 45,486 cubic feet. Now to find the board feet amount of railroad ties that can 
be stowed in the space mentioned, we multiply the cubic feet by 9.83, the unit which multiplied 
by the cubic bale space, equalled the amount of cargo loaded under deck on the S. S. "Margaret 
Coughlan." 

Thfecefore, 45,436x9.83 equals 447,127 board feet of rail road ties, which is the amount that 
a steamer of the S. S. "Margaret Coughlan" type would carry under deck as an oil burner in ex- 
cess of the amount she would carry as a coal burner. 

DEADWEIGHT COMPARISON 

SUMMER LOADING 
THE STEAMER "MARGARET COUGHLAN" IS USED FOR AN EXAMPLE 
Estimated amount in board feet of a cargo of railroad ties (sleepers) and total 
deadweight when loaded to summer marks. 

AS AN OIL BURNER 

Under Deck - 4,482,864 Board Feet equals 6,724 Long Tons 

On Deck... 742,000 Board Feet equals 1,113 Long Tons 



Total Cargo 5,224,864 Board Feet equals 7,837 Long Tons 

Fresh Water After Peak for Boiler Feed equals 83 Long Tons 

Fresh Water for Galley Purposes equals 30 Long Tons 

Ship's Stores... equals 75 Long Tons 

Fuel Oil equals 551 Long Tons 

Fuel Oil in Reserve equals 124 Long Tons 

No Ballast Necessary Long Tons 

Deadweight at Summer Load Line 8,700 Long Tons 

REMARKS ON DECKLOAD 

With the deckload of 742,000 board feet of ties, which would average about nine feet in height, 
and deadweight distributed as shown in the foregoing example, the steamer would probably be 
tender, but not cranky when loaded. No anxiety need be felt on this account, as the reserve 
(empty) double bottom tanks, can be filled to replace the fuel oil when consumed, or at any time 
when the master thinks it necessary for the safety of the vessel, to fill a tank to aid stability or 
adjust the trim. 

—99— 



DEADWEIGHT COMPARISON— Continued 

AS A COAL BURNER 

Under Deck 4,065,050 Board Feet equals 6,098 Long Tons 

On Deck 535,000 Board Feet equals 802 Long Tons 



Total Cargo 4,600,050 Board Feet. equals 6,900 Long Tons 

Fresh Water in After Peak for Boiler Feed . equals 83 Long Tons 

Fresh Water for Galley Purposes equals 30 Long Tons 

Ship's Stores equals 75 Long Tons 

Bunker Coal equals 826 Long Tons 

Bunker Coal in Reserve equals 186 Long Tons 

Water Ballast in Double Bottom equals 600 Long Tons 

Deadweight at Summer Load Line 8,700 Long Tons 

General Remarks 

The foregoing estimates of a cargo of railroad ties (sleepers) for summer loading, are based 
on a voyage from Vancouver, British Columbia, to Liverpool, England, the distance being 8,705 
nautical miles. The average speed of the steamer given in the examples is 10 knots an hour, on 
a consumption of 29 tons of fuel oil per day. 

It is not necessary to carry sufficient fuel oil for the entire distance, but only for what is termed 
"the longest leg of the voyage" which in this case is from the Panama canal Zone to Liverpool, 
a distance of 4591 nautical miles. A steamer averaging ten knots an hour would cover the latter 
distance in nineteen days and use 551 tons of fuel oil on a consumption of 29 tons per day. 

Owing to the possibility of encountering exceptionally bad weather during the voyage or 
meeting with engine or other trouble that would prevent the steamer making schedule time it is 
customary to carry a few days extra supply of fuel as a precautionary measure. This is the reason 
for showing in the deadweight estimates "Fuel oil in reserve." As in the other examples the coal 
required for voyage is computed by multiplying the fuel oil by 1.5, as a ton of oil gives the same 
results as IK tons of coal. 

DIFFERENCE IN CARRYING CAPACITY BETWEEN OIL AND COAL 

BURNERS 

S. S. "Margaret Coughlan" 

CARRYING CAPACITY OF RAILROAD TIES 

UNDER DECK 

4,482,864 Board Feet as an Oil Burner 
4,035,737 Board Feet as a Coal Burner. 



447,127 Board Feet Difference. 

An increase of 11.07 per cent more cargo Under Deck when fuel oil is used instead of coal. 

UNDER AND ON DECK COMBINED AND LOADED TO SUMMER MARKS 

5,224,864 Board Feet as an Oil Burner. 
4,600.050 Board Feet as a Coal Burner. 



624,814 Board Feet Difference. 

An increase of 11.4 per cent more cargo when fuel oil is used instead of coal. 

PRINCIPAL REASON FOR STEAMERS NOT CARRYING CAPACITY CARGOES 

During all stages of loading a deckload keep it level, even if the steamer lists. A slight list 
can be controlled at sea by taking the fuel oil or coal from the tank or bunker on the heavy side of 
vessel, hence the reason for keeping the deckload level, as the fuel consumed during the voyage 
can be moved at will, but it would be no picnic moving a deckload. 

At the first sign of a list, the owners or charterers representative should bring the matter to 
the attention of the Captain or Chief Officer, so that he can investigate the cause and take measures 
to counteract the list. 

Should the list continue to increase without a satisfactory reason, the trouble can be put down 
to slack oil or water in the tanks. It is now time to take action and have an investigation which 
may necessitate the services of a marine surveyor, and if it is found that the tanks have been 
"monkeyed with" with the deliberate intention of listing the vessel, so as to prevent a capacity 
cargo being carried, those directly responsible for "monkeying" with the tanks, should be severely 
dealt with in justice to the officers who act "on the square" and use their best efforts to carry a 
good cargo and otherwise work for the interests of their owners and charterers. 

Firms catering to the export lumber business, and especially time charters, keep a close record 
on the actual carrying capacity and steaming performances of vessels engaged in the lumber trade, 
and when competition is keen, or it is a matter of preference, it is only the steamers with a good 
cargo reputation, and manned with competent and reliable officers that are chartered. 

—100— 



PETROLEUM OIL 

Crude petroleum as it comes from the well varies in physical and chemical properties according 
to districts and countries, and at the various depths in the same locality. It is invariably lighter 
than water. 

Heavy Oils. As fuel oils expand when heated, about 1 % for every 25 degrees of temperature, 
corrections being made to 60° F. If temperature is above 60°, subtract, and if below, add. 

The Density of an oil is specified in degrees Beaume at a temperature of 60° F. For indi- 
cating the density, an instrument called a hydrometer (having an arbitrary scale, the readings 
of which are in degrees) is allowed to float freely in the oil. 

The Beaume gravity value is then read at the point where the surface of the oil intersects 
the scale. 

Specific Gravity is the ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid to an equal volume of water at 
60° F. 

To calculate the specific gravity of an oil at any temperature, having given its specific gravity 
at 60° F., take the number of degrees above or below 60° and multiply them by a constant, which 
for heavy oils of 20° Beaume and below, is .00034, — for those of 30^ Beaume, .0004,— of 30° to 40° 
Beaume .00045. and for refined oil .00050. The product is to be added to or subtracted from 
the original specific gravity according as the temperature is below or above 60° F. 

For reducing Beaume readings at 60° F. to specific gravity, use the formula: 

140 

Specific Gravity 

130 plus degrees Beaume 

Example: As an oil at a temperature of 60° F. has a reading of 22 on the Beaume scale. 
Find its specific gravity. 

140 

Specific Gravity equals .922 

130 plus 22 

Color does not indicate the quality of an oil, neither does it show if it is suitable for any par- 
ticular service. 

Chill or Cold Test is the lowest temperature at which an oil will pour. It gives no idea of 
the lubricating properties of an oU. 

Flash Point of an oil is the lowest temperature at which the vapors arising therefrom ignite, 
without setting fire to the oil itself, when a small test flame is quickly brought near its surface and 
quickly removed. 

Fire Point is the lowest temperature at which an oil ignites from its own vapors when a small 
flame is quickly brought near its surface and quickly removed. The fire point is about 50° above 
the flash point. 

The Vicosity of an oil is told by the number of seconds required for a certain quantity to 
flow through a standard aperture at constant temperatures, generally at 70°, 100° and 212° F. 
Gasoline is an example of a non-viscous oil. 

Oil for Boilers. Oil between 15° and 30° Beaume is, as a rule, suitable for boilers. It should 
not be too heavy to be easily vaporized by a jet of steam or to cause trouble in cold weather, and 
not so light and volatile as to be flashy. 

Heat Values of Oil. 14 to 15 pounds of water are evaporated into steam from and at 212° 
F. per pound of oil. Assuming 15 lbs. then one horse power will be developed with 2.3 pounds of 
oil. 

Oil and Coal Comparison. Assume the average evaporation from and at 212° F. per pound 
of coal to be 7 pounds, and for oil 15, then the ratio of evaporation is 7 to 15 and the pounds of 
oil equivalent to 2000 pounds of coal will be 7:15 equals x:2000 or x equals 933 lbs., which divided 
by 335 (assume the oil in a barrel weighs 335 lbs.) equals 2.8 barrels of oil as being equivalent to 
one ton (2000 lbs.) of coal, or 3.12 barrels to one ton of 2240 pounds. 

British Thermal Unit. From one pound of crude oil there can be obtained from 1.6 to 1.7 
times as many British thermal units as from a pound of coal. In other words, one pound of oil is 
equivalent to 1.6 pounds of coal. If 37 to 38 cubic feet of oil weigh a ton (2240 lbs.), assuming 
that 42 cubic feet of coal weighs the same amount, there is thus saved in stowage space with oil, 
10 to 15 %. 

Air required for the complete combustion of fuel oil is about 200 cubic feet per pound. 

EQUIVALENTS FOR FUEL OIL 
GRAVITY 
Specific .9560 Beaume 16.5 

1 Ton (2240 pounds) equals 6.69 American Barrels 

1 Ton (2240 pounds) equals 281.26 American Gallons 

1 Ton (2240 pounds) - equals 234.31 English Gallons 

1 Ton (2240 pounds) equals 37.59 Cubic Feet 

1 Barrel (American) equals 5.62 Cubic Feet 

1 Barrel (American). equals 42.00 Gallons 

1 Gallon (American) equals 7.964 Pounds 

1 Gallon (English) A equals 9.650 Pounds 

1 Gallon (American) equals 231.000 Cubic Inches 

1 Gallon (English) equals 277.274 Cubic Inches 

1 Cubic Foot Oil equals 59.75 Pounds 

1 Barrel (American) equals 335.00 Pounds. 

Oil and water capacity of ballast tanks. 

To determine capacities in barrels of oil, multiply tons of salt water by 6.23. 

To determine capacities for fresh water multiply capacities for salt water by .975. 

Salt water contains 35 cubic feet per ton (2240 pounds). 

Fresh water contains 35.9 cubic feet per ton (2240 pounds). 

To determine weight in lbs. of a cubic foot of oil, divide specific gravity by 16. 

To determine weight in lbs. of one gallon (English) of oil multiply specific gravity by 10. 

To determine weight in lbs. of one gallon (American) of oil multiply specific gravity by 8.328. 

To convert Imperial gallons into U. S. gallons multiply by 1.2. 

To convert U. S. gallons into Imperial gallons divide by 1.2. 

—101— 



TABLE OF EQUIVALENTS FOR FUEL OIL 

This chart shows the equivalents for fuel oils at various gravities 
and is taken at 60° F. Naturally, a temperature adjustment must be 
made to determine true specific gravity. This adjustment is as follows: 

FOR EVERY DEGREE ABOVE 60° F.. SUBTRACT .0004. 
FOR EVERY DEGREE BELOW 60° F.. ADD .0004. 



Specific 


Beaume 


Lbs. per 


Lbs. per 
Eng. Gal. 


Cu. Ft. Amer. 


Gal. Am. 


Gal. Eng. 


Bbls. Amer. 


Gravity 


Gravity 


Am. Gal. 


per Ton 


per Ton 


per Ton 


Per Ton 


1.0000 


10. 


8.331 


10. 


35.94 


268.875 


224. 


6.40 


.9956 


10.5 


8.302 


9.995 


36.09 


269.81 


224.75 


6.42 


.9930 


11. 


8.273 


9.930 


36.19 


270.76 


225.55 


6.44 


.9895 


11.5 


8.244 


9.895 


36.32 


271.71 


226.33 


6.46 


.9860 


12. 


8.214 


9.860 


36.45 


272.57 


227.13 


6.49 


.9825 


12.5 


8.185 


9.825 


36.57 


273.66 


227.96 


6.51 


.9790 


13. 


8.156 


9.790 


36.71 


274.62 


228.80 


6.54 


.9755 


13.5 


8.127 


9.705 


36.84 


275.62 


229.62 


6.56 


.9720 


14. 


8.098 


9.720 


36.97 


276.67 


230.49 


6.58 


.9685 


14.5 


8.069 


9.685 


37.10 


277.47 


231.16 


6.60 


.9655 


15. 


8.044 


9.650 


37.22 


278.46 


231.98 


6.63 


.9625 


15.5 


8.019 


9.625 


37.34 


279.33 


232.71 


6.65 


.9595 


16. 


7.994 


9.595 


37.46 


280.19 


233.42 


6.66 


.9560 


16.5 


7.964 


9.560 


37.59 


281.26 


234.31 


6.69 


.9530 


17. 


7.929 


9.530 


37.71 


282.22 


235.11 


6.74 


.9495 


17.5 


7.910 


9.495 


37.85 


283.08 


235.90 


6.75 


.9465 


18. 


7.885 


9.465 


37.97 


284.08 


236.66 


6.76 


.9430 


18.5 


7.856 


9.430 


38.11 


285.13 


237.52 


6.76 


.9400 


19. 


7.831 


9.400 


38.23 


286.04 


238.30 


6.81 


.9370 


19.5 


7.806 


9.370 


38.35 


286.95 


239.06 


6.83 


.9340 


20. 


7.781 


9.340 


38.47 


287.88 


239.82 


6.85 


.9310 


20.5 


7.756 


9.310 


38.60 


288.88 


240.60 


6.87 


.9280 


21. 


7.730 


9.280 


38.73 


289.74 


241.34 


6.89 


.9250 


21.5 


7.706 


9.250 


38.85 


290.68 


242.16 


6.89 


.9220 


22. 


7.680 


9.220 


38.98 


291.62 


242.95 


6.94 


.9195 


22.5 


7.660 


9.195 


39.09 


292.42 


243.61 


6.96 


.9165 


23. 


7.635 


9.165 


39.21 


293.25 


244.40 


6.98 


.9135 


23.5 


7.615 


9.135 


39.34 


294.15 


245.21 


7.00 


.9105 


24. 


7.585 


9.105 


39.47 


295.31 


246.01 


7.03 


.9045 


25. 


7.536 


9.040 


39.73 


297.24 


247.64 


7.07 


.8990 


26. 


7.490 


8.990 


39.97 


299.06 


249.15 


7.08 


.8930 


27. 


7.440 


8.930 


40.24 


301.07 


250.84 


7.12 


.8870 


28. 


7.390 


8.870 


40.51 


303.11 


252.53 


7.21 


.8815 


29. 


7.344 


8.815 


40.77 


305.01 


254.00 


7.26 


.8755 


30. 


7.294 


8.755 


41.04 


307.10 


255.85 


7.31 


.8700 


31. 


7.248 


8.700 


41.31 


309.19 


257.47 


7.36 


.8650 


32. 


7.206 


8.650 


41.54 


310.85 


258.94 


7.40 


.8595 


33. 


7.160 


8.595 


41.81 


312.84 


260.61 


7.44 


.8545 


34. 


7.119 


8.545 


42.05 


31*4.65 


262.14 


7.46 


.8490 


35. 


7.070 


8.490 


42.32 


316.83 


263.83 


7.54 


.8440 


36. 


7.031 


8.440 


42.58 


318.58 


265.40 


7.58 


.8395 


37. 


6.994 


8.395 


42.81 


320.27 


266.82 


7.62 


.8345 


38. 


6.952 


8.345 


43.06 


322.67 


268.42 


7.70 


.8295 


39. 


6.911 


8.295 


43.32 


324.12 


270.04 


7.71 


.8250 


40. 


6.873 


8.250 


43.56 


325.90 


271.51 


7.78 



Courtesy of The Texas Company, 17 Battery Place, New York. 
—102— 



SOME FACTORS OF ADVANTAGE OF FUEL OIL OVER COAL 

Fuel oil saves a very considerable amount of deadweight. The amount is always great, but 
how great depends on the conditions. 

One ton of oil can be safely relied on to give the same results as 1.6 tons of coal. 

.50 cubic feet of oil are equivalent in heating value to 80 cubic feet of coal, this allows the carry- 
ing of considerable larger cargoes and permits increase in the steaming radius through the carry- 
ing of more fuel. 

Oil burning vessels make 10 to 20 per cent more mileage than coal burners. 

Can carry fuel oil for round trip. Being a concentrated fuel and principally carried in double 
bottom tanks which are never used for cargo or bunker coal; it adds considerable cargo capacity. 

Fuel oil makes possible the maintenance of a continuous and uniform speed. 

The indicated horse power developed shows 18 per cent improvement in the case of oil fed 
vessels. 

Great economies are effected in the wages and "keep" of the crew, as the operating staff is 
usually reduced about 70 per cent, thus, the labor problem in the fireroom is made simpler. 

The machinery, labor, and wear and tear, due to the handling of ashes is entirely eliminated. 
Oil does not deteriorate like coal. 

Fuel oil is clean aboard ship, and bunkering is a clean quick job. Smoke, soot and ashes are 
eliminated (a very desirable factor especially on passenger ships). 

Time in port is saved through greater ease of taking oil than coal. 

Steam is raised quickly and maintained steadily. Fires started and stopped instantly. As 
it is not necessary to open doors for firing, no cold air strikes furnace walls and back ends, result- 
ing in better firing and longer life of furnace bricks. 

Uniform circulation of water due to constant heat well distributed under boilers. 

Improved circulation of water and the fact that furnace doors are always closed, and fires 
and drafts uniform, permits of at least 2.5 per cent more horse power and also reduces the main- 
tenance cost and adds to the life of the boilers. 

With fuel oil there is no corrosion of boiler protection plates, of floor plates or of angles. 

ELIMINATES 

Banking of fires in port 

Fire risk from spontaneous combustion 

Frequent painting 

,\shes, ash conveyors and smoke and soot 

Expense of grate repairs 

Corrosion of boiler plates 

Fuel handling devices ashore and afloat. 

NEWSPRINT PAPER 

CARGO SHIPMENTS OF PAPER IN CONJUNCTION WITH DOUGLAS FIR AND 

REDWOOD 

As the shipment of print paper in rolls from British Columbia and the Pacific ports of the 
United States to Australia, New Zealand and other countries will supplant this trade which form- 
erly was held by Germany, the following information will be of considerable assistance to those 
interested in this particular line. 

The ordinary tramp steamer of about 7000 tons deadweight can carry a full cargo of paper 
under deck, with Redwood doorstock and/or dry lath or pickets for stowage, also a deckload of 
lumber equal in capacity and height to the amount that the steamer would ordinarily carry with 
a straight cargo of Douglas Fir, provided that good stowage is made both under and on deck. 

DIMENSIONS OF PAPER ROLLS 

Paper rolls vary according to orders of foreign buyers, though they usually run from 21)^ 
inches to 84 inches in height, with a preponderance of 39-inch rolls. The diameter of rolls vary, 
but 34 to 36 inches could he considered a fair average. The height of roll is the net size (the 
width of paper) and an allowance of three inches extra in height should be made for wrapping 
paper. 

In some cases the ends of rolls are wooded, which means that the top and/or bottom ends 
are protected by boards about three-quarters of an inch in thickness and shaped to conform to the 
circular area of the end of the roll. The length and gross weight in pounds is stencilled on the 
side of each roll. 

Rolls about 21 inches in height are called cheese rolls at point of shipment. This is on account 
of their resembling a roll of cheese. 

These rolls are a very valuable aid to stowage. They can be used on their bilge or flat side 
to great advantage in the wings, between the top course of paper and beams, or any place where 
a larger roll would not go. 

The following is an original specification of a shipment of paper rolls for Sydney, Australia, 
which gives a very fair idea of the dimensions and weight of the average paper roll: 

SPECIFICATIONS GIVING DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT OF NEWSPAPER ROLLS 
FOR FOREIGN SHIPMENT 

Number 

of Height 

Rolls Inches 

641 '.- 39 

180 35 

600 39 

1,844 84 

1.827 42 

1,023 21X 

6,115 . 





Average 


Gross 


Tare 


Net 


Diam. 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Inches 


in Pounds 


in Pounds 


in Pounds 


in Pounds 


34 


710 


454,972 


13,621 


441,351 


34 


650 


117,107 


3,600 


113,507 


34 


650 


390,348 


12,750 


377,598 


36 


1,700 


3,126,236 


95,888 


3.030,348 


36 


836 


1,526.682 


39,280 


1.487,402 


36 


435 


445,386 


14,322 
179,461 


431,064 




6,060,731 


5,881,270 



—103- 



HOW TO DUNNAGE AND STOW PAPER ROLLS IN A SHIP'S HOLD 

Stanchions, pillars, frames or any section of compartment composed of steel or iron should 
be covered with burlap or otherwise dunnaged so as to prevent paper from being damaged through 
coming in contact with or chafing against the steel or iron parts mentioned. 

Before loading, the floors of the various holds should be dunnaged with lumber to prevent 
damage and levelled to make a solid foundation for the paper rolls. The after holds and especially 
the aftermost hold where the rise of the floor is very acute, should be filled with cargo other than 
paper if available to about the top of the shaft tunnel. 

Paper rolls must be stowed on end on a practically level floor, if stowed on bilge (side) they 
would be crushed out of shape by the upper courses and rendered useless for the purpose for which 
they are intended as they would not then revolve evenly on the newspaper machine cylinder. 

Cargo hooks must not be used to handle paper rolls, and extreme care must be used to guard 
against the rolls striking against side of vessel, hatch coamings or other obstructions during process 
of loading. 

If order of loading permits, the longest rolls should be stowed first in the hold; then the next 
to the longest length in rotation, reserving the shorter roUs to be used where a long roll cannot 
be stowed. 

SHORT STOWAGE REQUIRED 

Short stowage which must be dry is required to fill spaces between paper rolls; also in wings 
(sides), against iron bulkheads and in vacant spaces between the top course of rolls and beams 
of vessel. 

One hundred thousand board feet of dry doorstock. box shooks. dry lath or dry pickets is 
required to stow one thousand gross long tons of paper. 

If lumber or stowage is loaded on steamer prior to taking paper cargo, it should be stowed in 
one end of each compartment only, preferably the narrow end. 

If spread over the entire floor space it would have to be rehandled and thus delay the work 
of loading. When stowed in one end of a compartment, work of loading can commence in the vacant 
end immediately vessel arrives at paper mill, and the stowage in the other end can be used when 
required without retarding the work. 

It is a cardinal rule never to use a short roll except for an emergency, as they are easily handled 
and if they are not all utilized during loading they will come in very handy to finish off with. 

CUBIC STOWAGE PER TON OF PAPER ROLLS 

Under favorable conditions such as a vessel with large compartments or when the orders 
contain a large quantity of medium sized rolls or of a length that will stow from tloor to beams 
without loss of space, about ninety-one cubic feet bale space should be allowed for one gross long 
ton of paper. 

When there is a great variety of sizes, or the lengths are such that good stowage cannot be made 
owing to build of vessel or for any reason that results in a loss of space between the upper course 
and beams an allowance of at least ninety-five cubic feet bale space should be made. 

BUNKER SPACE 

All available space under deck should be reserved for cargo, and only enough bunker capacity 
allowed to cover the run on the longest leg of the voyage. For instance, a steamer from British 
Columbia or the U. S. North Pacific Coast, with a cargo destined for Sydney, Australia, should 
not take coal for the entire voyage, but should replenish her bunkers at Honolulu, Hawaii, taking 
sufficient coal there to safely carry her to Sydney. 

By referring to the following distances the benefit of replensihing bunkers at Honolulu will 
be apparent: 

Distance from Victoria, B. C. to Honolulu, 2349 nautical miles. 

Distance from Port Townsend, Wash., to Honolulu, 2366 nautical miles. 

Distance from Honolulu to Sydney, Australia, 4420 nautical miles. 

A vessel making nine knots per hour on a daily consumption of 28 tons of coal would be 20}4 
days on the voyage from Honolulu to Sydney, and would require a minimum of 574 tons of coal. 
To this amount should be added about four days extra supply of coal or 112 tons as a reserve against 
accident or bad weather. 

STABILITY 

Contrary to a general supposition a steamer with a full cargo of paper under deck, and broken 
spaces well filled with short stowage, and a full and complete deckload of about 800,000 board feet 
of Douglas Fir and averaging about eleven feet in height, will stand up as well at the finish as if 
the entire cargo was Douglas Fir. 

The reason for this is, that with a paper cargo under deck all bottom ballast tanks would be 
full, and with a straight cargo of Douglas Fir about half of the bottom ballast tanks of a capacity 
of say 600 tons would be empty. Therefore the extra weight of ballast required for a paper cargo 
would be in the bottom of the vessel and offset the heavy weight of Douglas Fir at a higher ele- 
vation in the hold. 

DEADWEIGHT 

The ordinary tramp steamer loaded under foregoing conditions would probably be six to ten 
inches off her summer marks with all bottom ballast tanks full. 

Therefore if it is possible to obtain as cargo about 500 tons deadweight of iron, lead, steel, 
tin, canned salmon or any commodity of a specific gravity several times heavier than water that 
can safely be stowed in bottom of vessel it would be an aid to stability and add to freight profits 
by replacing a large portion of water ballast with profitable cargo. 

POINTERS ON FILLING BALLAST TANKS 

In loading steamer with a combination of paper and lumber it is good policy to regulate the 
weight of cargo and stowage in such a manner that the vessel can be loaded to her marks with one 
or more small double bottom ballast tanks empty, so that in event of vessel becoming tender 
towards the end of the voyage, through burning the coal stowed |n the lower part of bunkers, the 
bottom tanks could be filled and the steamer would retain her stability by substituting the water 
ballast for coal. 

If possible leave tanks of small capacity empty, as they are only filled during voyage in case 
of emergency, it being considered a hazardous undertaking for a steamer with a high deckload 
to fill a large tank at sea, as the rolling of vessel would cause the slack water to rush to one side 
of the tank which would probably result in the steamer taking a very dangerous list. 

—104— 



CONVERSION OF U. S. AND ENGLISH MONEY 

According to Act of Congress, March 8, 1873, the Pound Sterling of Great Britain equals 
$4.8665; the value of one shilling equals $0.24}'^; the value of one penny equals $0.02. 

Table of Sterling Money 

4 Farthings (far) equal 1 penny (d.). 
12 Pence equal 1 shilling (s.). 
20 Shilling equal 1 pound (£). 

A Simple Process to Change Pounds, Shillings and Pence to Dollars and Cents 

Reduce pounds to shillings, add in the shillings, if any, and multiply the sum by .24!3; if any 
pence are given, increase the product by TWICE, as many cents. 
Reduce £185, 17s. and 9d. to U. S. money: 

185x20 equals 3700 
17 

Shillings, 3717 

3717X.24H equals 904.47 
PIus 9d. equals .18 



Answer $904.65 

Another Simple Method to Reduce Pounds to Dollars, and Vice Versa Exchange Being 

at $4.8665 
Multiply the number of pounds by 73, and divide the product by 15; the result will express 
its equivalent in dollars and cents. Or, 

Multiply dollars by 15 and dividing the product by 73, will give its equivalent in Pounds 
and decimals of a Pound. 

How many dollars in £96.'* 
£96 multiplied by 73 and divided by 15 equals $467.20. Ans. 

How many pounds in $839.50.'' 
$839.50 multiplied by 15 and divided by 73 equals £172.5. Ans. 

TO COMPUTE LUMBER SHIPMENTS IN POUNDS, SHILLINGS AND PENCE 

In making up Bills of Lading for British countries, the rate per thousand is invariably figured 
in English money. The following method explains the usual way of computing the freight in 
pounds, shillings and pence. 

Example No. 1 : What will the total freight amount to in sterling money on a shipment of 
lumber containing 220,024 board feet at £3 10s. Od. per thousand. 
Operation : 

220,024x£3>^ (£3 10s.) equals £770.084 
20 

Shillings 1.680 
12 

Pence 8.160 
Answer: £770 Is. 8d. 

Explanation: As the rate of freight is per thousand feet, point off three figures and multiply 
by £3K, which is the equivalent of £3 10s. Od. This gives £770 arid decimal .084 of a pound. 
Multiply .084 by 20 to obtain the shillings and .680 by 12 to obtain the pence. 

Example No. 2: What will the total freight amount to in sterling money on a shipment of 
lumber containing 86,976 board feet at £2 6s. 9d. per thousand? 

In this instance it is advisable to bring the pounds and shillings to pence, which in this case 
amounts to 561 pence. 

Operation: 

86.976 Board Feet 
561 Pence 



86976 
521856 
434880 

12)48793.536 

20)4066.128 (Multiply .128 by 12 to obtain the pence which is 1.536 or l^d.) 

203.6 

Answer: £203 6s. IJ^d. 
Explanation: As the rate of freight is per thousand, point off three figures and multiply 
by 561 (the pence). Divide the product by 12 which gives 4066 shillings and decimal point 128 
of a shilling. Now divide 4066 shillings by 20, to obtain the pounds. This gives 203 pounds and 
six shillings. To obtain the pence multiply .128 by 12; this gives 1.536 or l}i pence. 

— 105— 



LONGITUDE AND TIME 

Since the earth revolves around its axis in 24 hours, and its circumference is divided into 
360 degrees, the sun apparently passes over 15 degrees in 1 hour (360 divided by 24 equals 15); 
and consequently over 1 degree in 4 minutes (60 divided by 15 equals 4). Hence, these simple 
Rules: 

Rule — Multiplying the Longitude, expressed in degrees, by 4 gives the equivaleat Time ex- 
pressed in minutes. 

Rule — Dividing the Time, expressed in minutes, by 4 gives the equivalent Longitude ex- 
pressed in degrees. 

The difference in Longitude between Boston and San Francisco is nearly 51J4 degrees; what 
is the difference in Time.^ 

Answer — 51>;^x4 equals 205 min., or 3 h. 25 min. 

The difference in Time between London ahd New York is nearly 4 h. and 51^2 min.; what 
is the difference in Longitude? 

Answer — 4 h. SSJA min. equals 295K min. 295K^ divided by 4 equals 73K deg. 

Notes — A degree of Longitude at the equator is 69.16 miles; at ten degrees of Latitude, 
68 miles; at twenty degrees, 65 miles; at thirty degrees 60 miles; at forty degrees, 53 miles; at 
fifty degrees, 44.5 miles; at sixty degrees, 34.6 miles, etc. Thus longitude gradually diminishes 
with each degree of latitude, till at the poles it runs to nothing, as all the meridians converge from 
the equator to a point at the poles. 

The degrees of Latitude run parallel, and would be equally distant apart were the earth a 
perfect sphere, but owing to its polar diameter being 26j;2 miles shorter than its equatorial diameter, 
the first degree being 68.8 miles; the forty-fifth, 69 miles and the ninetieth, 69.4 miles. 

The earth's equatorial diameter is 7925.6 miles. Its polar diameter, 7899.1 miles. 

BENEFIT OF TABLE OF DISTANCES AND DIFFERENCE IN TIME 

TABLE 

The table of distances and difference in time table included in this work will prove a valuable 
aid to shipowners and lumbermen engaged in the export cargo trade, as it will enable them to 
quickly arrive at the distance between loading and discharging ports, and the time that vessel 
would be due to arrive at destination. 

Steamers on long voyages do not always go direct to destination but invariably stop at one 
or more coaling ports for bunkers. 

The distances in this book are arranged with this object in view, thereby enabling the reader 
to ascertain the distance from the principal ports of the world to any Douglas Fir or Redwood 
cargo mill on the Pacific Coast. 

Vessels destined for British Colunnbia ports usually stop first at Victoria, Vancouver Island, 
for Puget Sound ports at Port Townsend, Wash., for Portland and Columbia River ports at Astoria, 
Ore. This stop is made for any of the following reasons: To call for orders, pass quarantine, 
fumigate, enter, or take a local pilot if proceeding to inland waters. 

To ascertain the distance between ports it is often necessary to refer to one or more route 
ports. As an illustration, presume you wish to find the distance from Seattle, Wash., to Liverpool, 
England, you would trace the distance by following the nearest navigable route which is as follows: 

Seattle, Wash., to Port Townsend 39 Nautical Miles 

Port Townsend to Panama, C. Z 3985 Nautical Miles 

Panama, C. Z., to Colon, C. Z 43 Nautical Miles 

Colon C. Z. to Liverpool via Mona Passage. 4548 Nautical Miles 

Total distance 8615 Nautical Miles 

To trace the distance to the Mediterranean Sea ports, such as Barcelona, Spain; Marseilles, 
France; Genoa and Naples, Italy, and Alexandria and Port Said, Egypt, use the following route 
ports; Panama, Colon and Gibraltar. 

LENGTH OF PANAMA CANAL 

The distance from Panama Roads, Canal Zone, to Colon, Canal Zone is 43 nautical or 50 
statute miles. 

TO COMPUTE TIME OCCUPIED ON VOYAGE 

To compute the number of days that a full powered steamer would occupy on a voyage, the 
following data is necessary. 

Difference in time between port of departure and port of destination. Distance between 
ports, and the speed of steamer in knots (nautical miles) per hour. 

Example: A steamer averaging 10 knots per hour leaves Sydney, New South Wales, Eastern 
Australia, at 6 a. m., January 2nd (Australian time), bound for Portland, Oregon. When is she 
due at destination.^ 

Process: By referring to the "Difference in Time Table, you will note the difference in 
time between Eastern Australia and the U. S. Pacific Coast is 18 hours. Therefore the first thing 
to do is to adjust the Australian time to correspond to that of the U. S. Pacific Coast, which in 
this case will be noon. January 1st. The number of nautical miles from port to port is found by 
reference to the Honolulu "Distance Table, which gives the distance to both Sydney and Port- 
land, the total being 6,752 nautical miles. 

The number of knots per hour (10) is multiplied by (24) the hours per day, which equals 240 
knots, or nautical miles, and is divided into 6752, the number of nautical miles covered by steamer 
on voyage, which gives 28.133 days, or the equivalent of 28 days 3 hours. 

This is added to the Pacific Coast time of steamer's departure from Sydney, making January 
29th three p. m. as the time vessel is due at Portland. Oregon, without allowing for stoppages. 

Note: It is customary for a steamer destined for Portland, Oregon, to proceed to the entrance 
of the Columbia River, and there pick up a bar pilot, who takes the vessel to Astoria. 

The services of the bar pilot are dispensed with at Astoria, where a Columbia River pilot is 
engaged to take the vessel to Portland. 

—106— 



DIFFERENCE IN TIME TABLE 



When it is noon today from Vancouver, B. C, to San Diego, Californi 



Washington, Boston. New York and Philadelphia it 

Chicago, St. Louis and New Orleans it 

Cheyene and Denver it 

Sitka, Alaska - it 

Porto Rico it 

Panama Canal Zone it 

Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands it 

Tutuila, Samoa it 

Guam Islands it 

Manila, Philippine Islands it 

Argentine it 

Australia, Western it 

Australia, Central it 

Australia, Eastern ..it 

Austria-Hungary it 

Belgium it 



Borneo (British North) and Labuan. 

Brazil (Rio de Janeiro) 

Chile 



China (Hongkong). 

China (Saigon) 

Colombia (Bogota). 

Costa Rica 

Cuba 



Denmark it 

Ecuador ..it 

Egypt it 

England .it 

Fiji Islands (Suva) it 

France it 



Germany. 
Gibraltar. 
Greece 



Holland it 

Honduras .it 

India (Madras) it 

Ireland it 



Italy 

Jamaica (Kingston). 
Japan 



Java it 

Korea •_ ■ it 

Madagascar (Tananarivo) it 

Malta it 

Mauritius it 

Mexico it 

Newfoundland. ..it 

New Zealand it 

Nicaragua it 

Nome, Dutch Harbor it 

Norway it 

Peru it 

Portugal it 

Russia (Irkutsk) it 

Russia (Pulkova) -- it 

Russia (Vladivostok) it 

Singapore .it 

it 



n Spain 

n Sweden and Switzerland it 

n Tunis ■ it 

n Tnrkey it 

n Uruguay it 

n Valdez, Fairbanks, Xanana it 

n Venezuela it 



s 3:00 p. m. 

s 2:00 p. m 

s 1:00 p. m 

s 11:00 a. m. 

s 4:00 p. m. 

s 3:00 p. m, 

s 9:30 a. m. 

s 8:30 a. m. 

s 5:30 a. m, 

s 4:00 a. m. 

s 3:43 a. m, 

s 4:00 a. m. 

s 5:30 a. m. 

s 6:00 a. m. 

s 9:00 p. m. 

s 8:00 p. m. 

s 4:00 a. m. 

s 5:00 p. m. 

s 3:30 p. m. 

s 4:00 a. m. 

s 3:00 a. m. 

s 3:00 p. m. 

s 3:00 p. m. 

s 3:30 p. m. 

s 9:00 p. m. 

s 2:45 p. m. 

s 10:00 p. m. 

s 8:00 p. m. 

s 8:00 a. m. 

s 8:00 p. m. 

s 9:00 p. m. 

s 8:00 p. m. 

s 9:30 p. m. 

s 8:00 p. m. 

s 2:00 p. m. 

s 1:30 a. m. 

s 7:30 p. m. 

s 9:00 p. m. 

s 3:00 p. m. 

s 5:00 a. m. 

s 3:00 a. m. 

s 5:00 a. ra. 

s 11:00 p. m. 

s 9:00 p. m. 

s midnight 

s 1:30 p. m. 

s 4:30 p. m. 

s 7:30 a. m. 

s 2:15 p. m. 

s 9:00 a. m. 

s 9:00 p. m. 

s 3:00 p. m. 

s 7:30 p. m. 

s 3:00 a. m. 

s 10:00 p. m. 

s 5:00 a. m. 

s 3:00 a. m. 

s 8:00 p. m. 

s 9:00 p. m. 

s 8:00 p. m. 

s 10:00 p. ra. 

S 4:15 p. m. 

s 10:00 a. m. 

s 3:30 p. m. 



today 

today 

today 

today 

today 

today 

today 

tomorrow 

tomorrow 

tomorrow 

tomorrow 

tomorrow 

tomorrow 

tomorrow 

today 

today 

tomorrow 

today 

today 

tomorrow 

tomorrow 

today 

today 

today 

today 

today 

today 

today 

tomorrow 

today 

today 

today 

today 

today 

today 

tomorrow 

today 

today 

today 

tomorrow 

tomorrow 

tomorrow 

today 

today 

tonight 

today 

today 

tomorrow 

today 

today 

today 

today 

today 

tomorrow 

today 

tomorrow 

tomorrow 

today 

today 

today 

today 

today 

today 

today 



—107- 



EXPLANATION OF THE LOAD LINE 

The circular disc prescribed by section 438 of the British Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, shall 
be 12 inches in diameter, with a horizontal line 18 inches in length and drawn through its center. 
The disc shall be marked amidships on each side of the ship, the position of its center being placed 
at such level as is specified in the Board of Trade certificate of approval. 

The lines to be used in connection with the disc in order to indicate the maximum load-line 
under different circumstances and at different seasons shall be horizontal lines 9 inches in length 
and 1 inch in thickness, extending from and at right angles to a vertical line marked 21 inches for- 
ward of the center of the disc. 

The maximum load-line in fresh water shall be marked abaft such vertical line, and the max- 
imum load-line in salt water shall be marked forward of such vertical line, as shown in the dia- 
grams hereinafter mentioned. 

Diagram Showing Load Line (Plimsoll Marks). 




WNA 



W NA 

Sailing Ship 

Such maximum load-lines shall be as follows, and the upper edge of such lines shall respect- 
ively indicate: 

For Fresh Water. The maximum depth, to which the vessel can be loaded in fresh water. 
For Indian Summer. The maximum depth to which the vessel can be loaded for voyages 
during the fine season in the Indian seas, between the limits of Suez and Singapore. 

For Summer. The maximum depth to which the vessel can be loaded for voyages(other than 
Indian summer voyages) from European and Mediterranean ports between the months of April 
and September, both inclusive, and as to voyages in other parts of the world (other than Indian 
summer voyages) the maximum depth to which the vessel can be loaded during the corresponding 
or recognized summer months. 

For Winter. The maximum depth to which the vessel can be loaded for voyages (other 
than Indian summer voyages, and summer voyages) from European and Mediterranean ports 
between the months of October and March, both inclusive, and as to voyages in other parts of the 
world, the maximum depth to which the vessel can be loaded during the corresponding or recog- 
nized winter months. 

For Winter (North Atlantic). The maximum depth to which the vessel can be loaded for 
voyages to, or from, the Mediterranean, or any European port, from, or to, ports in British North 
America, or eastern ports in the United States, north of Cape Hatteras, between the months of 
October and March, both inclusive. 

Such maximum load-lines shall be distinguished by initial letters conspicuously marked op- 
posite each horizontal line as aforesaid, such initial letters being as follows: 
F. W.— Fresh Water. 
W.— Winter. 
I. S. — Indian Summer. 
W. N. A. —Winter North Atlantic. 
S. — Summer. 

BRITISH LAW RELATIVE TO LUMBER DECKLOADS 

(1) Loading of Timber. If a ship, British or foreign, arrives between the last day of 
October and the 16th day of April in any year at any port in the United Kingdom from any port 
out of the United Kingdom carrying any heavy or light wood goods as deck cargo (except under 
the conditions allowed by this section), the master of the ship and also the owner, if he is privy 
to the offense, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding £5 for every 150 cubic feet of space in which 
wood goods are carried in contravention of this section. 

(2) The conditions under which heavy wood goods may be carried as deck cargo are as 
follows : 

(a) That they must only be carried in covered spaces; and 

(b) That they must be carried only in such class of ships as may be approved by the Board 
of Trade for the purpose; and 

(c) That they must be loaded in accordance with regulations made by the Board of Trade 
with respect to the loading thereof. 

(3) The conditions under which light wood goods may be carried as deck cargo are as follows: 

(a) Each unit of the goods must be of a cubic capacity not greater than 15 cubic 
feet; and 

(b) The height above the deck to which the goods are carried .must not exceed — 

(i) In the case of an uncovered space on a deck forming the top of a break, poop, or other 
permanent closed-in space on the upper deck, 3 feet above the top of that closed-in space; and 

(ii) In the case of an uncovered space, not being a space forming the top of any permanent 
closed-in space on the upper deck or a space forming the top of a covered space, the height of the 
main rail, bulwark, or plating or one-fourth of the inside breadth of the ship, or 7 feet, whichever 
height is the least; and 

—108— 



BRITISH LAW RELATIVE TO LUMBER DECKLOADS— Continued 

(iii) In the case of a covered space the full height of that space. 

(c) Regulations may be made by the Board of Trade for the protection of seamen from 
any risk arising from the carriage of the goods in any uncovered space to the height allowed under 
this section, and those regulations must be complied with on the ship. 

(4) A master or owner shall not be liable to any fine under this section — 

(a) In respect of any wood goods which the master has considered it necessary to place or 
keep on deck during the voyage on account of the springing of any leak or of any other damage 
to the ship received or apprehended; or 

(b) If he proves that the ship sailed from the port at which the wood goods were loaded as 
deck cargo at such time before the last day of October as allowed a sufficient interval according 
to the ordinary duration of the voyage for the ship to arrive before that day at the said port in 
the United Kingdom, but was prevented from so arriving by stress of weather or circumstances 
beyond his control; or 

(c) If he proves that the ship sailed from the port at which the wood goods were loaded as 
deck cargo at such time before the 16th day of April as allowed a reasonable interval according 
to the ordinary duration of the voyage for the ship to arrive after that day at the said port in the 
United Kingdom and by reason of an exceptionally favorable voyage arrived before that day. 

(5) For the purposes of this section — 

(a) The expression "heavy wood goods" means — 

(i) Any square, round, waney, or other timber, or any pitch pine, mahogany, oak, teak, 
or other heavy wood goods whatever; or 

(ii) Any more than five spare spars or store spars, whether or not made, dressed, and finally 
prepared for use; and 

(b) The expression "light wood goods" means any deals, battens, or other light wood goods 
of any description; and 

(c) The expression "deck cargo" means any cargo carried either in any uncovered space 
upon deck or in any covered space not included in the cubical contents forming the ship's registered 
tonnage; and 

(d) The space in which wood goods are carried shall be deemed to be the space limited by 
the superficial area occupied by the goods and by straight lines inclosing a rectangular space suf- 
ficient to include the goods. 

(6) Nothing in this section shall affect any ship not bound to a port in the United Kingdom 
which comes into any port of the United Kingdom under stress of weather-, or for repairs, or for 
any purpose other than the delivery of her cargo. 

(7) This section shall come into operation on the passing of this act. 

Rules Made by the Board of Trade Under Section 10 of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1906, 
as Amended in 1907 

In pursuance of the provisions of sei-tioii 10 of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1906, the Board 
of Trade hereby approve the classes of sliips shown in the annexed Rule I for the purpose of carry- 
ing heavy wood goods as deck cargo, and do hereby make the regulations shown in the annexed 
Rules Nos. II and HI. 

The board direct that these three rules shall come into effect on the 7th day of February, 1907. 

Rule I — Classes of Ships Approved for the Purpose of carrying Heavy Wood Goods as 

Deck Cargo 

The classes of ships which are approved for the purpose of carrying heavy wood goods as 
deck cargo are iron or steel steamships having covered spaces; that is to say, poops, bridges, fore- 
castles, or shelter decks, which form part of the permanent structure of the ship, and which comply 
with the following conditions: 

(a) The space must be within an erection which extends from side to side of the ship. 

(b) The outside plating must be continuous from deck to deck and throughout the full 
length of the space. 

(c) The length must be bounded by iron or steel partitions, and the total area of the open- 
ings in any such partition must not exceed one-fourth of the area of the partition itself. 

Rule II — Regulations with Respect to the Loading of Heavy Wood Goods as Deck Cargo 

1. Heavy wood goods may only be loaded in covered spaces which form part of the perma- 
nent structure of the ship, and which comply with the conditions specified in the preceding Rule I. 

2. Heavy wood goods must not be loaded in any covered space in such a manner as to make 
the ship unfit, by reason of instability, to proceed to sea and to perform the voyage safely, having 
regard to the nature of the service for which she is intended. 

3. Heavy wood goods must be properly stowed and secured so as to prevent shifting. 

Rule 1 1 1 — Regulations for the Protection of Seamen from Risk Arising from the Carriage 
of Wood Goods as Deck Cargo in Uncovered Spaces on Board Ship 

1. When wood goods are carried in an uncovered space there shall be fitted on each side_ of 
the ship temporary rails or bulwarks of a substantial character for the full length within which 
the deck cargo is stowed, extending to a height of not less than 4 feet above the line of the top 
of the deck cargo. 

2. The uprights of such temporary rail or bulwark shall be of substantial scantling and be 
placed not more than 4 feet apart; the heels of the uprights shall extend down to and rest on the 
deck of the vessel. 

3. There shall be attached longitudinally to these uprights for the full length of the deck 
cargo spars, deals, battens, guard ropes, or chains at intervals of not more than 12 inches apart 
in a vertical direction. If ropes or chains are used, they shall be set taut and securely attached 
to each upright. 

4. The temporary rails or bulwarks may consist of closely spaced vertical deals, provided 
they are properly secured and that there are protected openings at intervals for water clearance. 

5. Where light wood is carried in an uncovered space (not being a space forming the top pf 
any permanent closed-in space on the upper deck or a space forming the top of a covered space) 
and the uncovered space is bounded by an open rail formed of wood, iron, or steel stanchions and 
longitudinal rods, battens, or chains, no measures for the protection of the seamen shall be deemed 
sufficient if the height of such rail exceeds 3 feet 6 inches. 

—109— 



INLAND WATERS 

PUGET SOUND, WASHINGTON AND BRITISH COLUMBIA PORTS 
Nautical Miles 













6 






















E 


t) 


O 






OQ 


4) 


0) 
















n 

£ 

c 


a 
L. 
« 

a 


a 



£ 


*> 
c 
o 
a 


1 


n 

c 


< 


n 

m 


o 


















m 


O 


o 


a 


U 


Z 


s. 


IL 


15 


96 


126 


107 


62 


75 


43 


67 




111 


130 


122 


77 


60 


58 


82 


36 


110 


105 


132 


88 


54 


62 


93 


84 


129 


194 


39 


35 


127 


73 


10 


111 




190 


155 


117 


141 


56 


121 


130 


190 


--. 


208 


170 


53 


143 


175 


44 


72 


136 


84 


46 


88 


15 


51 


75 


141 


52 


165 


127 


7 


91 


132 


122 


155 


208 


.-- 


56 


165 


98 


35 


77 


117 


170 


56 




127 


60 


28 


50 


59 


132 


102 


64 


90 


19 


69 


38 


80 


110 


95 


57 


65 


42 


62 


52 


78 


114 


105 


67 


70 


36 


72 


73 


113 


165 


52 


4 


120 


53 


23 


60 


141 


53 


165 


127 


--. 


94 


132 


97 


7 


183 


148 


110 


134 


50 


115 


133 


168 


221 


16 


76 


178 


111 


49 


58 


56 


143 


98 


60 


94 




65 


64 


133 


74 


159 


121 


28 


88 


126 


82 


121 


175 


35 


28 


132 


65 




63 


44 


146 


108 


71 


88 


12 


76 


59 


102 


157 


59 


24 


114 


47 


30 


53 


98 


153 


56 


22 


110 


43 


26 


59 


103 


156 


50 


14 


113 


46 


19 


42 


89 


141 


69 


31 


97 


30 


36 


39 


85 


138 


70 


32 


95 


28 


37 


118 


180 


20 


210 


172 


50 


138 


171 


81 


123 


179 


34 


28 


134 


69 


7 


114 


160 


206 


5 


52 


162 


98 


30 


100 


144 


196 


20 


46 


153 


87 


25 


125 


185 


5 


203 


165 


54 


140 


170 


70 


140 


27 


165 


128 


35 


94 


132 


43 


59 


129 


100 


62 


84 


18 


67 


62 


108 


159 


53 


8 


116 


49 


19 



From 

Undermentioned 

Ports to 



Anacortes 

Bellingham 

Blaine 

Bremerton 

Cape Flattery 

Comox, B. C 

Dungeness 

Departure Bay 

Dupont 

Everett 

Esquimau, B. C.- 
Friday Harbor 

James Island 

Mukilteo 

Nanaimo, B. C 

Nea-h Bay . 

Olympia 

Port Angeles 

Point Atkinson _. 

Port Blakeley 

Port Crescent 

Port Gamble 

Port Ludlow. 

Point No Point 

Port Townsend 

Point Wilson 

Powell Fiver, B. C 

Seattle 

Steilacoom 

Tacoma 

Union Bay, B. C. 
Vancouver, B. C. . 

Victoria, B. C 

Possession Point.. 



75 
39 

102 

157 
33 

115 
59 
24 
50 
44 
54 
22 

114 
97 
82 
47 

108 
30 
58 

6 
11 
17 
19 
159 
33 
61 
51 
152 
114 
50 
16 



CHEMAINUS, B. C. 



TO 

Bellingham, Wash... 70 

Comox, B. C 70 

Esquimau, B. C 67 

Genoa Bay, B. C 15 

Nanaimo, B. C 20 

Nanoose, B. C 32 

New Westminster, B. C 65 

Ocean Falls, B. C 287 

Port Alberni, B. C ._185 



TO 

Port Angeles, Wash 65 

Port Townsend, Wash 78 

Powell River, B. C 110 

Seattle, Wash 120 

Tacoma, Wash 144 

Union Bay, B. C 65 

Vancouver, B. C 65 

Victoria, B. C 63 



—110— 



INLAND WATERS 

PUGET SOUND, WASHINGTON, AND BRITISH COLUMBIA PORTS 

Nautical Miles 



From 

Undermentioned 

Ports to 







U 




■o 

3 
-I 

k 


Q. 


■a 
c 



1- 

u 
i 


00 

u 

1 


45 


30 


116 


53 


42 


118 


69 


58 


98 


36 


44 


184 


98 


89 


180 


153 


141 


20 


28 


17 


130 


109 


98 


48 


56 


69 


210 


22 


31 


172 


43 


33 


129 


37 


28 


106 


50 


37 


112 


18 


24 


167 


110 


97 


50 


93 


80 


177 


78 


81 


223 


43 


30 


138 


104 


92 


66 


26 


36 


171 


54 


41 


143 


6 


17 


159 




14 


155 


7 


18 


158 


14 


... 


143 


16 


3 


140 


155 


143 




31 


39 


180 


60 
50 


69 
58 


208 
198 


148 


136 


24 


111 
46 
13 


97 
31 
20 


73 
126 
160 



Anacortes 

Bellingham 

Blaine 

Bremerton 

Cape Flattery 

Comox, B. C 

Dungeness .. 

Departure Bay 

Dupont 

Everett 

Esquimalt, B. C._. 

Friday Harbor 

James Island 

Mukilteo 

Nanaimo, B. C 

Neah Bay 

Olympia 

Port Angeles 

Point Atkinson 

Port Blakeley 

Port Crescent 

Port Gamble 

Port Ludlow 

Point No Point 

Port Townsend 

Point Wilson 

Powell River, B. C 

Seattle 

Steilacoom 

Tacoma 

Union Bay, B. C. 
Vancouver, B. C... 

Victoria, B. C 

Possession Point - 



69 
81 
94 
13 

123 

179 
53 

135 
34 
28 
71 
65 
72 
25 

134 

117 
50 
69 

128 
7 
78 
33 
31 
22 
39 
40 

180 

35 
24 
173 
135 
68 
19 



88 

100 

114 

25 

144 

196 

72 

150 

20 

46 

89 

83 

93 

43 

153 

136 

24 

87 

148 

25 

97 

51 

50 

40 

58 

60 

198 

24 

16 

191 
155 
68 
39 



121 
125 
100 
190 
185 
5 
131 

45 
203 
165 
128 
106 
115 
160 

54 
179 
216 
140 

69 
170 
148 
152 
148 
151 
136 
133 

24 
173 
201 
191 

77 
125 
154 



70 

49 

139 

140 

27 

80 

34 

165 

128 

86 

57 

67 

120 

35 

129 

178 

94 

7 

132 

106 

114 

111 

115 

97 

95 

73 

135 

130 

155 

77 

84 
116 



31 
43 
53 
74 
59 

129 
19 
82 

100 
62 
4 
30 
23 
55 
84 
49 

115 
18 
76 
67 
19 
50 
46 
50 
31 
30 

126 
68 
98 
68 

125 
84 



Ocean Falls, Vancouver Island, B. C, to Port Townsend 

Ocean Falls, Vancouver Island, B. C, to Seattle, Wash 

Port Alberni, Vancouver Island, B. C, to Victoria, B. C 

Port Alberni, Vancouver Island, B. C, to Chemainus, B. C. 



Nautical 
Miles 

372 

410 

130 

185 



GENOA BAY, B. C. 



TO 

Bellingham, Wash 

Comox, B. C 

Chemainus, B. C 

Esquimalt, B. C 

Nanaimo, B. C 

Nanoose, B. C 

New Westminster, B. C. 

Ocean Falls, B. C - . 

Port Alberni, B. C.---- - 



. 52 
. 83 
. 15 
35 
. 33 
. 45 
. 52 
.302 
.170 



TO 
Port Angeles, Wash... 
Port Townsend, Wash 

Powell River, B. C 

Seattle, Wash 

Tacoma, Wash 

Union Bay, B. C 

Vancouver, B. C 

Victoria, B. C 



-. 50 

.. 55 

-. 91 

-- 95 
-.119 

.. 88 

.. 52 

.. 33 



-11] 



TABLE OF DISTANCES 

Acapuico, Mexico, to— ACAPULCO "^mmIs 

Antofagasta, Chile 2,984 

Arica, Chile 2,768 

Caldera, Chile 3,130 

Callao, Peru 2,198 

Coquimbo, Chile ' — 3,259 

Corinto, Nicaragua 792 

Esmeraldas, Ecuador 1,527 

Guayaquil, Ecuador 1,708 

Honolulu, Hawaii 3,289 

Iquique, Chile 2,834 

Lota, Chile 3,573 

Magdalena Bav, Mexico 853 

Mollendo, Peru 2,643 

Pacasmavo, Peru 1,895 

Paita, Peru 1,725 

Panama, C. Z 1,426 

Pichilinque Harbor (U. S. coal depot) Mexico 778 

Pisco, Peru 2,309 

Punta Arenas, Chile 4,582 

Punta Arenas, Costa Rica 1,011 

Salina Cruz, Mexico 314 

San Jose, Guatemala 574 

Tahiti (Papeete), Society Is 3,595 

Talcahuano, Chile 3,558 

Valdivia, (Port Corral), Chile 3,712 

Valparaiso, Chile 3,406 

ANTWERP 

Nautical 

Antwerp, Belgium, to — Route — Miles 

Acapuico, Mexico Via Panama Canal 6,277 

Do Via Magellan Strait . 12,010 

Aden, Arabia Via Suez Canal 4,710 

Callao, Peru Via Panama Canal 6,197 

Do Via Magellan Strait 10,099 

Coronel, Chile Via Panama Canal J 7,673 

Do Via Magellan Strait 8,621 

Danzie, Germany Via Kiel Canal 734 

Do Via Skagerrak 1,054 

Guayaquil (Puna), Ecuador Via Panama Canal 5,644 

Do Via Magellan Strait 10,701 

Honolulu, Hawaii Via Panama Canal 9,536 

Do Via Magellan Strait 13,798 

Iquique, Chile Via Panama Canal 6,838 

Do Via Magellan Strait 9,629 

Panama, C. Z Via Mona Passage 4,851 

Pernambuco, Brazil 4,181 

Portland, Ore., U. S. A Via Panama Canal and San Francisco 8,746 

Do Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 14,271 

Port Townsend, Wash., U. S. A Via Panama Canal and San Francisco 8,866 

Do Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 14,391 

Punta Arenas, Chile Via Panama Canal 8,794 

Do East of South America 7,433 

San Diego, Cal, U. S. A Via Panama Canal 7,694 

Do. Via Magellan Strait 13,229 

San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 8,096 

Do Via Magellan Strait 1 3,62 1 

San Jose, Guatemala Via Panama Canal 5,737 

Do Via Magellan Strait 11.724 

Sitka, Alaska Via Panama Canal and San Francisco 9,398 

Do. - - _ _ _ Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 14,923 

Ushantl. (lat.48°40'N.,long. 5°30'W.) 441 

Valparaiso, Chile Via Panama Canal 7,467 

Do J Via Magellan Strait 8,866 

Vancouver, B. C Via Panama Canal 8,883 

Do Via Magellan Strait 14,406 

—112— 



ASTORIA 

. ^ . ^ Nautical 

Astoria, to — Miles 

Columbia River Bar 10 

Dutch Harbor, Alaska 1,688 

Grays Harbor Bar 53 

Port Townsend, Wash 214 

San Francisco 555 

Seattle, Wash 252 

Tacoma, Wash 279 

Tatoosh, Wash 126 

Willapa Bar 38 

INLAND WATERS 

ASTORIA 

DISTANCES FROM ASTORIA, ORE., TO COLUMBIA RIVER AND WILLAMETTE 
RIVER LOADING POINTS 
The distances are from Astoria at a point known as the Mack Dock, where all bear- 
ings are taken. The Portland distance terminates at the Steel Bridge. 

Statute 
Miles 

Knappton, Wash 12 

Wauna, Ore 28 

Westport, Ore 30 

Oak Point, Wash 40 

Stella, Wash 42^ 

Rainier, Ore 54^ 

Prescott, Ore 57 

Goble, Ore 60 

Kalama, Wash 60 

Saint Helens, Ore 73 

Linnton, Ore 92>^ 

Vancouver, Wash 94 

Saint Johns, Ore 95 

Portland, Ore 100 

BORDEAUX 

r% . w- ^ Ft ^ Nautical 

Bordeaux, France, to — Route — Miles 

Acapulco, Mexico Via Panama Canal 6,067 

Do Via Magellan Strait 1 1,65 1 

Aden, Arabia Via Suez Canal 4,351 

Callao, Peru Via Panama Canal 5,987 

Do Via A'lagellan Strait 9,740 

Colon, C. Z Via Mona Passage 4,598 

Coronel, Chile Via Panama Canal 7,463 

Do Via Magellan Strait 8,262 

Guayaquil (Puna), Ecuador Via Panama Canal 5,434 

Do Via Magellan Strait 10,342 

Habana, Cuba Via NE. Providence Channel 4,188 

Honolulu, Hawaii Via Panama Canal 9,326 

Do Via Magellan Strait 13,439 

Iquique, Chile Via Panama Canal 6,628 

Do Via Magellan Strait 9,270 

New York, U. S. A Winter; westbound 3,216 

Do Summer; westbound 3,280 

Panama, C. Z Via Mona Passage 4,641 

Pernambuco, Brazil 3,823 

Portland, Ore., U. S. A Via Panama Canal and San Francisco 8,536 

Do Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 13,912 

Port Townsend, Wash., U. S. A Via Panama Canal and San Francisco 8,656 

Do Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 14,032 

Punta Arenas, Chile East of South America 7,074 

Do -■ Via Panama Canal 8,584 

—113— 



BORDEAUX— Continued 

Bordeaux, France, to— Route— '*' mmIs 
San Diego, Cal, U. S. A Via Panama Canal 7,484 

Do ViaA4agellan Strait 12,870 

San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 7,886 

Do .__Via Magellan Strait 13,262 

San Jose, Guatemala Via Panama Canal 5,527 

Do Via Magellan Strait 11,365 

Sitka, Alaska Via Panama Canal and San Francisco 9,188 

Do Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 14,564 

Valparaiso, Chile Via Panama Canal 7,257 

Do Via Magellan Strait 8,507 

Vancouver, B. C Via Panama Canal 8,673 

Do Via Magellan Strait 14,047 



BREST 

Brest, France, to— Route— '^^ Mills 

Colon, C. Z Via Mona Passage 4,420 

Gravesend, England 392 

Guantanamo Bay (Caimanera), Cuba 3,791 

New York (The Battery), N. Y., U. S.. .Winter; westbound 2,994 

Do Summer; westbound 3,072 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 4,841 

San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A Via Rio de Janero and Magellan Strait 13,271 

Do Via Mona Passage and Panama 7,708 



BUENOS AIRES 

Buenos Aires, Argentina, to — Route — "^^ Mnis 

Asuncion, Paraguay 827 

Colon, C. Z North of South America 5,450 

Los Angeles Hbr. (San Pedro), Cal, U.S. Via Panama Canal 8,406 

Punta Arenas, Chile 1,383 

Rosario, Argentina 210 

Southampton, England 5,762 

Victoria, Brazil 1,372 



CALLAO 
Callao, Peru, to- "^^l^'i^ll 

Antofagasta, Chile 813 

Arica, Chile 593 

Caldera, Chile 980 

Chimbote, Peru 206 

Coquimbo, Chile ^ 1,136 

Honolulu, Hawaii 5,161 

Iquique, Chile 659 

Los Angeles Harbor (San Pedro), Cal., U. S. A 3,655 

Lota, Chile 1,530 

Magdalena Bay, Mexico 3,008 

MoUendo, Peru 468 

Panama, C. Z 1,346 

Pisco, Peru 128 

Punta Arenas, Chile 2,671 

Talcahuano, Chile 1,508 

Valdivia (P. Corral), Chile 1,691 

Valparaiso, Chile 1,306 

—114— 



COLON 
Colon, Canal Zone, to — Route — Miles 

Antilla, Cuba 844 

Aux Cayes, Haiti 645 

Apalachicola, Fla., U. S. A 1,287 

Bahai, Brazil . 3,668 

Bahia Blanca, Argentina 5,733 

Balboa, C. Z 38 

Baltimore, Md., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,901 

Barbados (Bridgetown), W. I 1,237 

Bishops Rock, England Via Anegada Passage 4,395 

Do Via Mona Passage 4,356 

Bluefields, Nicaragua 276 

Bocas del Toro, Panama 144 

Bordeaux, France Via Mona Passage 4,598 

Boston, Mass., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages; out- 
side Nantucket Lightvessel 2,157 

Brunswick, Ga., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,550 

Buenos Aires, Argentina North of South America 5,450 

Campeche, Mexico 1,167 

Cape Haitien, Haiti 817 

Carmen, Mexico 1,246 

Cartagena, Colombia 281 

Cayenne, Guiana 2,265 

Ceiba, Honduras 666 

Charleston, S. C, U. S. A..„ Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,564 

Do Via Yucatan Channel; northbound 1,636 

Culebra I. (The Sound), W. I Outside Crab I. and via South Channel 1,018 

Curacao (Santa Ana Harbor), W. I 699 

Fort de France, Martinique, W. I 1,159 

Galveston, Texas, U. S. A 1,493 

Georgetown, B. Guiana 1,515 

Gibraltar Via St. Thomas 4,343 

Do Via Anegada Passage 4,332 

Gibraltar, Strait of (lat. 35° 57' N., long. 

5° 45' W.) Via Anegada Passage 4,308 

Glasgow, Scotland Via Mona Passage 4,523 

Gracias a Dies, Nicaragua 399 

Grijalva (Tabasco) River, Mexico 1,280 

Guantanamo Bay (Caimanera), Cuba 696 

Gulfport, Miss., U. S. A i Northbound 1,388 

Habana, Cuba --Via Yucatan Channel 1,003 

Halifax, Nova Scotia Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 2,317 

Hamburg, Germany Via Mona Passage 5,070 

Hampton Roads, Va., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,768 

Havre, France Via Mona Passage 4,614 

Horn I. Arch., Gulf of Mexico Northbound 1,373 

Hull, England Via Mona Passage 4,884 

Iriona, Honduras 566 

Jacmel, Haiti 683 

Jacksonville, Fla., U. S. A Via Yucatan Channel; northbound 1,535 

Key West, Fla.,_U. S. A 1,065 

Kingston, Jamaica, W. I 551 

La Guaira, Venezuela 841 

Liverpool, England Via Mona Passage 4,548 

Livingston, Guatemala 772 

Los Angeles Hbr. (San Pedro), Cal., U.S 2,956 

Manzanillo, Cuba 689 

Maracaibo, Venezuela 600 

Margarita L (La Mar Bav), Venezuela 1,012 

Matagorda Bay (Entr.), Tex., U. S. A 1,515 

Mississippi River (South Pass; lat. 28° 

59' N., long. 89° 07' W.) Northbound ■ 1,308 

Mississippi River (S. W. Pass; lat. 28° 

53' N., long. 89° 27' W.) Northbound 1,309 

—115— 



COLON— Continued 

Colon, Canal Zone, to— Route— "^^ Mnli 

Mobile, Ala., U. S. A Northbound 1,393 

Mona Passage (lat. 18° 03' N., long. 67° 

47' W.), W. I 880 

Monte CristI, D. R 838 

Monkey Pt. Harbor, Nicaragua 259 

Montevideo, Uruguay 5,336 

Nassau, New Providence I 1,376 

New Orleans, La., U. S. A Northbound; via South Pass 1,403 

Do Northbound; via S. W. Pass 1,410 

New York (The Battery), N. Y., U. S.-_Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,974 

Newport, R. I., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 2,028 

Newport News, Va., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,776 

Norfolk, Va., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,779 

Do Via Yucatan Channel; northbound 2,006 

Panama Roads, C. Z ^ Via Panama Canal 43 

Para, Brazil 2,309 

Pensacola, Fla., U. S. A Northbound 1,369 

Pernambuco, Brazil 3,277 

Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked f. Passages 1,946 

Plymouth, England Via St. Thomas 4,500 

Do Via Mona Passage 4,455 

Do Via Anegada Passage 4,494 

Ponce, Porto Rico 933 

Port Antonio, Jamaica 582 

Port Arthur, Texas .. 1,485 

Port Castries, St. Lucia, W. I 1,160 

Port Limon, Costa Rica 192 

Port Morelos, Yucatan 828 

Port of Spain, Trinidad, W. I 1,159 

Port Roval, Jamaica, W. I 546 

Port Tampa,' Fla., U. S. A _ 1,212 

Porto Plata, D. R 899 

Portsmouth, N. H., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked L Passages; 

outside Nantucket Lightvessel 2,174 

Provincetown, Mass., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 2,126 

Puerto Barrios, Guatemala 780 

Puerto Cabello, Venezuela 802 

Puerto Cortes, Honduras 733 

Puerto Mexico, Mexico ^ 1,377 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 4,348 

Rio Grande (Entr.) 1,484 

Roatan Island (Coxen Hole).. 641 

Roseau, D. R 1,152 

Sabine, Texas, U. S. A 1,476 

St. George, Grenada ._ 1,118 

St. Thomas, W. I 1,029 

Samana Bay, D. R 955 

San Juan, P. R 993 

Sanchez, D. R 967 

Sandy Hook, N. J., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,964 

Santiago, Cuba 683 

Santos, Brazil 4,536 

Savannah, Ga., U. S. A Via Yucatan Channel; northbound 1^607 

Savanilla, Colombia 314 

Southport, N. C, U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked L Passages 1,592 

Tampico, Mexico 1 ,485 

Tela, Hond uras 706 

Trinidad (Dragons Mouths; lat. 10° 43' 

N., long. 61° 45' W.), W. I 1,142 

Truj illo, Honduras 622 

Tuxpam, Mexico 1,455 

Vera Cruz, Mexico 1,420 

—116— 



COLON — Continued 

Colon, Canal Zone, to— Route— '^^ MMei 

Virgin Passage (lat. 18° 20' N., lone. 65° 

07' W.), W. I .^. 1,021 

Williamsted, Curacao 697 

Wilmington, N. C, U. S. A Via Yucatan Channel; northbound 1,730 

Windward Passage (lat. 20° 10' N., long. 

74° 00' W.), W. I 734 

Yucatan Channel (lat. 21° 50' N., long. 

85°03' W.) 812 



EUREKA 



Eureka, Humboldt Bay, Cal., to — Route — ^"mucs 

Astoria, Oregon 343 

Bellingham, Wash 594 

Cape Flattery, Wash 464 

Coos Bay, Oregon 159 

Grays Harbor, Wash., "Whistle Buoy" 371 

Honolulu, Hawaii 2,139 

Los Angeles Harbor (San Pedro), Cal 584 

Manilla, P. I Via Honolulu 6,906 

Panama Roads, Canal Zone 3,461 

Port Townsend, Wash 548 

San Francisco, Cal 216 

San Diego, Cal 668 



Seattle, Wash. 

Tacoma, Wash 

Union Bay, B. C 

Vancouver, B. C 

Victoria, B. C 

Willapa Harbor, Wash., "Whistle Buoy". 



588 
610 
659 
617 
534 
35S 



GENOA, ITALY 



Genoa, Italy, to — 

Baltimore, Md., U. S. A... 

Boston, Mass., U. S. A 

Do 

Buenos Aires, Argentina... 
Galveston, Texas, U. S. A. 



Rout€ 



Nc 



.G. C, C. St. Vincent to C. Charles Light- 
vessel 

.Winter; westbound 

.Summer; westbound 



Gibraltar. 



Via N. E. Providence Channel and south of 

Dry Tortugas 

Gibraltar, Strait of (lat. 35° 57' N., long. 

5°45' W.) . 

London, England 

Malta (Valetta Harbor) 

Messina, Sicily 

New Orleans, La., U. S. A Via N. E. Providence Channel, south of 

Dry Tortugas, and S. W. Pass 

New York (The Battery), N. Y., U. S.__Winter; westbound 

Do Summer; westbound 

Newport News, Va., U. S. A G. C, C. St. Vincent to C. Charles Light- 
vessel 

Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A Winter; westbound 

Do Summer; westbound 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 

St. John, N. B Winter; westbound 

Do Summer; westbound 

Smyrna, Turkey in Asia Via Messina and Athens 



4,343 
3,876 
3,899 
6,135 

5,600 
860 

877 

2,204 

587 

488 

5,440 

4,054 
4,060 

4,219 
4,207 
4,213 
5,022 
3,776 
3,802 
1,116 



-117- 



GIBRALTAR 
Gibraltar, to— Route— *^* Miili 
Acapulco, Mexico Via Anegada Passage and Panama Canal 5,801 

Do Via Magellan Strait 10,960 

Aden, Arabia 3,321 

Alexandria, Egypt 1,810 

Algiers, Algeria 425 

Barcelona, Spain ^ 516 

Callao, Peru Via Anegada Passage and Panama Canal 5,721 

Do Via Magellan Strait 9,049 

Colon, C. Z Via Anegada Passage 4,332 

Do Via St. Thomas, W. I 4,343 

Constantinople, Turkey Via Messina Strait and Corinth Canal 1,823 

Do . Via South of Sicily and Cervi and Duro 

Channels 1,824 

Coronel, Chile Via Anegada Passage and Panama Canal 7,197 

Do Via Magellan Strait 7,571 

Fayal (Horta), Azores 1,133 

Genoa, Italy 860 

Guayaquil (Puna), Ecuador Via Anegada Passage and Panama Canal 5,168 

Do Via Magellan Strait 9,651 

Hongkong Via Anegada Passage and Panama Canal.. .13, 570 

Do Via Suez Canal 8,409 

Honolulu, Hawaii. Via Anegada Passage and Panama Canal 9,060 

Do Via Magellan Strait 12,748 

Iquique, Chile Via Anegada Passage and Panama Canal 6,362 

Do Via Magellan Strait 8,579 

Lisbon, Portugal 304 

Liverpool, England 1,294 

Livorno (Leghorn), Italy 875 

London, England 1,351 

Malta (Valetta Harbor) 990 

Manila, P. I Via Anegada Passage, Panama Canal, and 

San Bernardino Strait 13,745 

Do Via Anegada Passage, Panama Canal and 

Balintang Channel 13 ,722 

Do Via Suez, Aden, Colombo, Singapore, S. of 

Sokotra I 8,372 

Marseille, France 693 

Naples, Italy.. J 982 

New York (The Battery), N. Y., U. S.. .Winter; westbound 3,201 

Do Summer; westbound 3 ,207 

Odessa, Russia Via Messina Strait and Corinth Canal 2,170 

Do Via South of Sicily and Cervi and Duro 

Channels 2,171 

Panama, C. Z Via Anegada Passage 4,375 

Plymouth, England . . ...... 1,060 

Port Said, Egypt 1,925 

Port Townsend, Wash., U. S. A Via Anegada Passage, Panama Canal and 

San Francisco. 8,390 

Do Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 13,341 

Portland, Ore., U. S. A Via Anegada Passage, Panama Canal and 

San Francisco 8,270 

Do Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 13,221 

Punta Arenas, Chile 6,383 

San Diego, Cal Via Anegada Passage and Panama Canal 7,218 

Do . Via Magellan Strait 12,179 

San Francisco, Cal Via Anegada Passage and Panama Canal... 7,620 

Do Via Magellan Strait 12,571 

San Jose, Guatemala Via Anegada Passage and Panama Canal... 5,261 

Do Via Magellan Strait 10,674 

Sfax, Tunis . 1,060 

Sitka, Alaska Via Anegada Passage, Panama Canal and 

San Francisco 8,922 

Do Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 13,873 

—118— 



GIBRALTAR- Continued 

Gibraltar, to— Route— "^^ Mnes 
Smyrna, Turkey Via Messina Strait and Corinth Canal 1,672 

Do Via South of Sicily and Cervi and Duro 

Channels 1 ,676 

Sydney, Australia Via Panama and Tahiti 12,169 

Do Via Suez Canal 10,237 

Toulon, France 705 

Trieste, Austria-Hungary 1,693 

Tripoli, Tripoli . 1,118 

Valparaiso, Chile Via Anegada Passage and Panama Canal 6,991 

Do Via Magellan Strait 7,816 

Vancouver, B. C Via Anegada Passage and Panama Canal 8,407 

Do Via Magellan Strait 13,356 

Wellineton, New Zealand Via Anegada Passage, Panama Canal and 

Tahiti 11,209 

Do Via Suez Canal 11,156 

Yokohama, Japan Via Anegada Passage and Panama Canal 12,057 

Do Via Anegada Passage, Panama Canal and 

San Francisco 12,156 

Do Via Suez, Hongkong, Shanghai and Van 

Diemen Strait 10,302 

Do Via Suez, Aden, Colombo and Singapore 9,907 

Do Via Suez Canal 9,859 

GRAYS HARBOR 
Grays Harbor, Wash., "Whistle Buoy," to— Route— "^'mmIs 

Astoria, Oregon 53 

Eureka, Humboldt Bay 371 

Honolulu, Hawaii 2,281 

Los Angeles Harbor (San Pedro), Cal 972 

Manila Via Honolulu 7,084 

Port Townsend, Wash 179 

San Francisco, Cal 604 

Seattle, Wash 218 

Tacoma, Wash 243 

Vancouver, B. C 232 

Victoria, B. C ^... 155 

Willapa Harbor, Wash., "Whistle Buoy" '.... ISj^ 

HONOLULU 
Honolulu, Hawaii, to— Route— '*^ Mnli 

Astoria, Ore., U. S. A 2,246 

Auckland, New Zealand 3,820 

Brisbane Roads, Australia 4,169 

Callao, Peru 5,161 

Cape Horn, South America 6,472 

Chimbote, Peru 5,015 

Christmas I., N. Pacific Ocean 1,161 

Dutch Harbor, Unalaska I., Alaska 2,046 

Fanning Island 1,056 

Guam (Port Apra), Marianas 3,337 

Do -.--Via Tarawa I., Gilbert Is 3,944 

Gulf of Fonseca (Monypenny Point) 

Nicaragua '. 4,038 

Hobart, Tasmania 4,930 

Hongkong Rhumb 4,939 

Jaluit, Marshall Is.__ 2,096 

Johnston I., Hawaii 717 

Juan Fernandez I. (San Juan Bautista 

. Bay) 5,595 

Kusaie I., Caroline Is 2,467 

Laysan Island, H. I ,_. __ _ 820 

Levuka, Fiji Is 2,730 

—119— 



HONOLULU— Continued 
Honolulu, Hawaii, to— Route— "^'mmm 

Los Angeles Harbor (San Pedro), Cal., U. S 2,228 

Magdalena Bay, Mexico 2,543 

Manila, P. I Via north end of Luzon, P. I 4,869 

Do Via Guam and north end of Luzon, P. I 5,079 

Do Via Guam and San Bernardino Strait 4,838 

Do Via San Bernardino Strait 4,767 

Marquesas Is., Nuku Hiva (Taiohae) 2,102 

Marshall Is. (Eniwetok Atoll) 2,375 

Melbourne, Australia Via South Channel 4,942 

Midway Is. (Welles Harbor) 1,149 

New Hebrides (St. Philip and St. James 

Bay) 3,014 

New York (The Battery), N. Y., U. S-.Via Magellan Strait 13,312 

Do Via Panama Canal, and Windward and 

Crooked I. Passages 6,702 

Nonuti, Gilbert Is 2,100 

Noumea, New Caledonia 3,373 

Nukonono, Union Is 2,009 

Pago Pago, Samoa Is 2,276 

Panama, C. Z 4,685 

Pelew Is. (Korror Harbor) 3,997 

Petropavlovsk, Kamchatka 2,762 

Point Conception, Cal., U. S. A 2,126 

Ponape, Caroline Is 2,685 

Port Lloyd, Ogasawa, Is 3,283 

Port Townsend, Wash., U. S. A 2,366 

Portland, Ore., U. S. A 2,332 

Punta Arenas, Chile 6,370 

Raoul I., Kermadec Is 3,246 

Rarotonga, Cook Is .. 2,553 

Salina Cruz, Mexico 3,580 

San Bernardino Strait (Entr.), P. I 4,457 

San Diego, Cal., U. S. A 2,278 

San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A 2,091 

Sandakan, Borneo 5,044 

Seattle, Wash., U. S. A 2,409 

Sitka, Alaska . 2,386 

Sydney, Australia 4,420 

Tahiti (Papeete), Society Is 2,381 

Tarawa Island, Gilbert Is 2,100 

Tongatabu (Nukualofa), Tonga Is 2,749 

Ugi I. (Selwyn Bay), Solomon Is 3,047 

Valparaiso, Chile.'. 5,919 

Vancouyer, B. C 2,423 

Victoria, British Columbia 2,349 

Vladiyostok, Siberia 3,725 

Wake Island 2,004 

Wellington, New Zealand 4,113 

Yap (Tomill Harbor), Caroline Is 3,757 

Yokohama, Japan Rhumb 3 ,445 

Do Great Circle 3,394 

IQUIQUE 

■ /^i.-i ... Nautical 

Iquique, Chile, to — Miles 

Antofagasta, Chile 224 

Caldera, Chile 420 

Coquimbo, Chile 602 

Lota, Chile 1,033 

Punta Arenas, Chile 2,201 

Talcahuano, Chile . 1.008 

Valdiyia (P. Corral), Chile 1,205 

Valparaiso, Chile 782 

Yokohama, Japan 9,026 

—120— 



LIVERPOOL 
Liverpool, England, to— Route— '^^ mhIs 

Acapulco, Mexico Via Panama Canal 6,017 

Do Via Magellan Strait 1 1 ,891 

Adelaide, Australia Via Panama, Tahiti, Sydney and Melbourne 13,478 

Do Via Suez Canal, Aden, Colombo and King 

George Sound 11, 108 

Aden, Arabia Via Suez Canal 4,608 

Baltimore, Md., U. S. A Winter; westbound 3,373 

Do Summer; westbound 3,454 

Boston, Mass., U. S. A Winter; westbound 2,895 

Do Summer; westbound 3,010 

Buenos Aires, Argentina 6,243 

Callao, Peru Via Panama Canal 5,937 

Do Via Magellan Strait 9,980 

Cape Town, Africa 6,080 

Colombo, Ceylon Via Suez Canal, south of Sokotra I 6,694 

Colon, C. Z Via Mona Passage 4,548 

Coronel, Chile Via Panama Canal 7,413 

Do Via Magellan Strait 8,502 

Disko (Godhavn), Greenland 2,137 

Funchal, Madeira 1 ,428 

Galveston, Texas, U. S. A Winter; westbound; via NE. Providence 

Channel and south of Dry Tortugas 4,749 

Do Summer; westbound; via NE. Providence 

Channel and south of Drv Tortugas 4,766 

Gibraltar ' 1,294 

Guayaquil (Puna), Ecuador Via Panama Canal 5,384 

Do Via Magellan Strait 10,582 

Hongkong Via Panama and direct 1.. 13, 764 

Do Via Panama, San Francisco and Yokohama. 13,957 

Do Via Suez Canal, Aden, Colombo and Singa- 
pore 9,743 

Do Via Magellan Strait, Pago Pago and Guam. 17,432 

Honolulu, Hawaii Via Panama Canal 9,276 

Do Via Magellan Strait 13,679 

Iquique, Chile Via Panama Canal 6,578 

Do Via Magellan Strait 9,510 

I vigtut, Greenland 1,621 

Kinchow, Kwantung Bay, China Via Suez Canal 10,924 

Las Palmas, Canary Is 1,661 

Manila, P. I Via Magellan Strait, Pago Pago and Guam_17,lll 

Do Via Panama Canal and San Bernardino St._13,961 

Do Via Panama, San Francisco and Yokohama, 14,129 

Do Via Suez Canal, Aden, Colombo and Singa- 
pore 9,659 

Do !. Via Suez Canal, Colombo and Singapore 9,649 

Melbourne, Australia Via Cape of Good Hope 12,137 

Do J Via Cape Town 12,157 

Do Via Panama Canal 12,519 

Do Via Suez Canal 11,084 

Do Via Panama, Tahiti and Sydney 12,966 

Do Via Suez Canal, Aden, Colombo, King 

George Sound and Adelaide 11,620 

Mobile, Alabama, U. S. A Winter; westbound; via NE. Providence 

Channel and south of Dry Tortugas 4,520 

Do Summer; westbound; via NE. Providence 

Channel and south of Dry Tortugas 4,537 

New Orleans, La., U. S. A Winter; westbound; via NE. Providence 

Channel, south of Drv Tortugas and 

SW. Pass • 4,589 

Do Summer; westbound; via NE. Providence 

Channel, south of Dry Tortugas and 

SW. Pass 4,606 

—121— 



LIVERPOOL— Continued 

Liverpool, England, to — Route — ^Iwines 

New York (The Battery), N. Y., U. S.. .Winter; westbound 3,073 

Do Summer; westbound 3,171 

Newport News, Va., U. S. A Winter; westbound 3,249 

Do Summer; westbound 3,330 

Panama, C. Z Via Mona Passage 4,591 

Pensacola, Fla., U. S. A Winter; westbound; via NE. Providence 

Channel and south of Dry Tortugas 4,480 

Do Summer; westbound; via NE. Providence 

Channel and south of Dry Tortugas 4,497 

Pernambuco, Brazil Direct 4,062 

Do Via Scilly Is. (St. Marys Anch.) 4,078 

Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A Winter; westbound 3,226 

Do Summer; westbound 3,324 

Port Nelson, Saskatchewan, Canada 3,009 

Port Townsend, Wash., U. S. A Via Panama and San Francisco 8,606 

Do Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 14,272 

Portland, Ore., U. S. A Via Panama and San Francisco 8,486 

Do Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 14,152 

Punta Arenas, Chile Direct 7,314 

Do Via Scilly Is. (St. Marys Anch.) 7,329 

St. Thomas, W. I 3,574 

San Diego, Cal., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 7,434 

Do Via Magellan Strait • 13,110 

San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 7,836 

Do . Via Magellan Strait 13,502 

San Jose, Guatemala Via Panama Canal 5,477 

Do. , Via Magellan Strait 1 1,605 

San Juan del Norte, Nicaragua Via Mona Passage 4.683 

Do Via Windward Passage 4,605 

Scilly Is. (St. Marys Anch.) 291 

Shanghai, China Via Panama Canal, Apia and Guam 15,068 

Do Via Panama Canal and Honolulu 13,606 

Do Via Suez Canal, Aden, Colombo, Singapore 

and Hongkong . 10,595 

Singapore, Straits Settlements Via Suez Canal 8,241 

Sitka, Alaska Via Panama and San Francisco 9,138 

Do Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 14,804 

Sydney, Australia Via Panama and Tahiti 12,385 

Do Via Suez Canal, Aden, Colombo, King George 

Sound, Adelaide and Melbourne". 12,201 

Tientsin, China Via Panama, San Francisco and Yokohama. 13,837 

Do Via Suez Canal, Aden, Colombo, Singapore, 

Hongkong and Shanghai 11,335 

Do Via Suez Canal, Colombo and Singapore 11,103 

Valparaiso, Chile Via Panama Canal 7,207 

Do Via Magellan Strait 8,747 

Vancouver, British Columbia Via Panama Canal • 8,623 

Do Via Magellan Strait 14,287 

Vigo, Spain 786 

Vladivostok, Siberia Via Suez Canal, Colombo and Singapore 11,282 

Wellington, New Zealand Via Cape Town 13,353 

Do Via Panama Canal and direct 11,096 

Do Via P.inama and Tahiti 11,425 

Do Via Suez Canal, Aden, Colombo, King George 

Sound and Melbourne 12,955 

Do Via Suez Canal and direct 12,462 

Yokohama, Japan Via Magellan Strait and Pago Pago 16,584 

Do Via Panama Canal and direct 12,273 

Do ' Via Panama and San Francisco 12,372 

Do Via Suez Canal, Aden, Colombo, Singapore, 

Hongkong and Shanghai 11,636 

—122— 



LONDON 

■ . p- ■ ■ . n ^ Nautical 

London, England, to — Route — Miles 

Baltimore, Md., U. S. A Winter; westbound 3,610 

Do Summer; westbound 3,681 

Bishops Rock (lat. 49° 50' N., long. 6° 

27' W.) 407 

Boston, Mass., U. S. A Winter; westbound 3,132 

Do Summer; westbound 3,237 

Cape Town, Africa 6,139 

Christiana, Norway 658 

Copenhagen, Denmark 704 

Danzig, Germany Via Kiel Canal 760 

Do Via Skagerrak 1,078 

Gibraltar 1,351 

Havre, France 203 

Helsingfors, Finland Via Kiel Canal 1,064 

Hongkong Via Suez Canal 9,749 

Lisbon, PortugaL-. 1 ,062 

Melbourne, Australia Via Panama 1 2,734 

New York (The Battery), N. Y., U. S.. .Winter; westbound 3,310 

Do Summer; westbound 3,398 

Newport News, Va., U. S. A Winter; westbound 3,486 

Do Summer; westbound 3,557 

Pernambuco, Brazil 4,136 

Petrograd, Russia 1,519 

Do Via Kiel Canal 1,209 

Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A Winter; westbound 3,463 

Do Summer; westbound 3,551 

Plymouth, England 321 

Port Arthur, Texas, U. S. A Winter; westbound; via NE. Providence 

Channel and south of Dry Tortugas — 4,963 

Do Summer; westbound; via NE. Providence 

Channel and south of Dry Tortugas... 4,970 

Riga, Russia Via Kiel Canal 988 

Southampton, England 215 

Stockholm, Sweden 1,251 

Sydney, Australia Via Cape of Good Hope 12,663 

Do Via Suez Canal 11,603 

Tornea, Russia 1,659 

LOS ANGELES HARBOR (San Pedro) 
Los Angeles Harbor (San Pedro), Cal., U. S., to— Route— "^^ MMei 

Adelaide, Australia 7,420 

Antofagasta, Chile 4,430 

Arica, Chile 4,219 

Auckland, New Zealand . . 5,658 

Bankok, Siam Via San Bernardino Strait 7,957 

Batavia, Java Via Makassar Strait 7,917 

Bombay, India Via Makassar Strait 10,639 

Brisbane, Australia 6,260 

Buenos Aires, Argentina Via Panama Canal 8,406 

Calaca, P. I 6,537 

Callao, Peru 3,655 

Colombo, Ceylon 9,756 

Colon, C. Z Via Panama Canal 2,956 

Freemantle, Australia 8,525 

Guayaquil, Ecuador 3,182 

Hakadote, Japan 4,576 

Hongkong, China 6,507 

Honolulu, Hawaii 2,228 

Kobe, Japan 5,185 

Manila, P. I North of Luzon I ^ 6,530 

Do Via Honolulu and San Bernardino Strait — 6,995 

Do Via San Bernardino Strait 6,588 

—123— 



LOS ANGELES HARBOR fSan Pedro)— Continued 
Los Angeles Harbor (San Pedro), Cal., U. S. to— Route— '^^ Muli 

Melbourne, Australia j 7,032 

Mollendo, Peru 4,094 

Monterey, Cal 288 

Nagasaki, Japan Via Yokohama 5,572 

Newcastle, Australia 6,456 

Noumea, New Caledonia 5,521 

Pago Pago, Samoa 4,163 

Paita, Peru 3,191 

Panama, C. Z J 2,913 

Perth, Australia . 8,540 

Portland, Ore., U. S. A 989 

Punta Arenas, Costa Rica _ 2,499 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Via Panama Canal _ _ 7,305 

Saigon, China 7,403 

Salina, Cruz, Mexico 1,803 

San Diego, CaL, U. S. A 97 

San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A '_ 368 

Santa Cruz, Cal., U. S. A 295 

Shanghai, China Via Yokohama 5,956 

Singapore, Straits Settlements Via San Bernardino Strait 7,866 

Surabaya, Java Via Makassar Strait 7,622 

Sydney, Australia 6,511 

Tahiti, Society Islands 3,571 

Tientsin, China Via Yokohama 6,221 

Tsingtau, China Via Yokohama . 6,025 

Valparaiso, Chile 4,808 

Victoria, B. C 1,091 

Vladivostok, Siberia 4,991 

Wellington, New Zealand 5,858 

Yokohama, Japan 4,839 

MANILA 
Manila, P. 1., to— Route— '^^ Muli 

Batavia, Java Via Palawan Passage 1,559 

Borongan, Samar, P. I 435 

Bremen, Germany Via Suez Canal and Singapore 9,955 

Brisbane Roads, Australia Via Mindoro and Torres Straits and inside 

route 3,552 

Cairns, Australia Via Mindoro and Torres Straits and inside 

route 2,723 

Cebu, P. I Via Verde I. and Jintotolo Passages 391 

Colombo, Ceylon 2,952 

Friederich VVilhelmshafen, Papua Via San Bernardino Strait 2,011 

Guam (Port Apa), Marianas Via north end of Luzon, P. I 1,742 

Do Via San Bernardino Strait 1,501 

Honolulu, Hawaii Via north end of Luzon, P. I 4,869 

Do Via San Bernardino Strait 4,767 

Do Via north end of Luzon, P. I. and Guam 5,079 

Iloilo, P. I Via Verde I. and Jintotolo Passages 361 

Job, Job L, P. I Via West Apo Channel 550 

Limay, Luzon, P. I 22 

Liverpool, England Via Singapore, Colombo and Suez Canal 9,649 

Do Via Guam, Pago Pago and Magellan Strait. 17,111 

London, England Via Suez Canal 9,656 

Mangarin, Mindoro, P. I 170 

Melbourne, Australia . '. Via Mindoro and Torres Straits and inside 

route 4,528 

Moji, Japan 1,436 

Newcastle, Australia Via Mindoro and Torres Straits and inside 

route 3,917 

Obngapo, Luzon, P. I 64 

Pago Pago, Samoa Is Via San Bernardino Strait 4,505 

Panama, C. Z Via Balintang Channel and Cape San Lucas. 9,347 

Do Via San Bernardino Strait 9,370 

—124— 



MANILA— Continued 

Manila, P. I., to— Route— '^^MUei 

Pelew Is. (Korror Harbor) Via Verde I. Passage and between Maranjos 

Gr. and Copul I 1,044 

Port Darwin, Australia Via Mindoro, Basilan, Banka and Manipa 

Straits 1 ,834 

Port Townsend, Wash., U. S. A Composite Great Circle 5,931 

Rabaul, Neu Pommern Via San Bernardino Strait 2,281 

Saigon, Cochin-China 907 

San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A Via Balintang Channel 6,221 

Do Via San Bernardino Strait 6,301 

Seattle, Wash., U. S. A Via Yokohama__ ^ 6,012 

Do Via San Bernardino Strait, Guam and Hono- 
lulu 7,247 

Singapore, Straits Settlements 1,370 

Southampton, England Via Singapore and Suez Canal 9,488 

Sydney, Australia Via Mindoro and Torres Straits and inside 

route 3 ,967 

Torres Strait (Thursday Island) Via Mindoro Strait 2,227 

Townsville, Australia Via Mindoro and Torres Straits and inside 

route 2,881 

Wake Island Via San Bernardino Strait 2,772 

Wyndham, Australia Via Mindoro, Basilan, Banka and Manipa 

Straits 1,982 

Yap I. (Tomill Harbor), Caroline Is Via San Bernardino Strait 1,154 

Yokohama, Japan Via Balintang Channel 1,757 

Do Via Hongkong, Shanghai, Nagasaki, Inland 

Sea and Kobe 2,683 

Zamboanga, Mindanao, P. I Via East Apo Channel 532 

NEWPORT NEWS, VA., U. S. A. 

As the distance between Newport News, Va., and Norfolk, Va., is only three miles, 
use the Norfolk table as it is close enough for all practical purposes. 

NORFOLK 
Norfolk, Va., U. S. A., to— Route— **^Viutl 
Acapulco, Mexico Via Panama Canal 3,248 

Do Via Magellan Strait 11,476 

Adelaide, Australia Via Panama, Tahiti, Sydney and Melbourne. 10,709 

Do Via St. Vincent and Cape Town 12,709 

Algiers, Algeria 3 ,784 

Amsterdam, Netherlands Winter; eastbound 3,575 

Do Summer, eastbound 3,659 

Antwerp, Belgium Winter; eastbound 3,551 

Do Summer; eastbound 3,635 

Baltimore, Md., U. S. A . 172 

Barcelona, Spain Great Circle C. Charles Lightvessel to C. 

St. Vincent 3,881 

Belize, British Honduras Via Straits of Florida; southbound; outside_ 1,503 

Bocas del Toro, Panama Via Crooked I. and Windward Passages 1,853 

Boston, Mass., U. S. A Via Vineyard South and Pollock Rip Slue_._ 518 

Bremen, Germany Winter; eastbound 3,793 

Do Summer; eastbound 3,877 

Buenos Aires, Argentina 5,824 

Callao, Peru Via Panama Canal 3,168 

Do Via Magellan Strait 9,565 

Cartagena, Colombia Via Crooked I. and Windward Passages 1,658 

Colombo, Ceylon Great Circle, C. Charles Lightvessel to C. 

St. Vincent 8,769 

Colon, C. Z Via Crooked I. and Windward Passages 1,779 

Constantinople, Turkey 5,188 

Copenhagen, Denmark Winter; eastbound 4,093 

Do Summer; eastbound 4,177 

Coronel, Chile Via Magellan Strait 8,087 

Do Via Panama Canal 4,644 

Funchal, Madeira 2,907 

—125— 



NORFOLK— Continued 

Norfolk, Va., U. S. A., to— Route— '^' MiTIi 

Genoa, Italy Great Circle, C. Charles Lightvessel to C. 

St. Vincent 4,222 

Georgetown, British Guiana 2,090 

Georgetown, S. C, U. S. A . 388 

Gibraltar Great Circle, C. Charles Lightvessel to C. 

St. Vincent 3,369 

Guam (Port Apra), Marianas Via Magellan Strait 14,921 

Do Via Panama Canal _" 9,810 

Do Via Suez Canal and Sunda Strait 13,234 

Guayaquil (Puna), Ecuador Via Panama Canal 2,615 

Do Via Magellan Strait 10,167 

Habana, Cuba Southbound; outside 985 

Halifax, Nova Scotia . 790 

Hamburg, Germany Winter; eastbound 3,813 

Do Summer; eastbound 3,897 

Hampton Roads (off light), Va., U. S 11 

Hongkong Via Panama, San Francisco, Yokohama and 

Shanghai 11,496 

Do Via Panama, Honolulu, Yokohama and 

Shanghai 11,794 

Hongkong Via Panama, Honolulu, Guam and Manila. .11,976 

Do Via Suez Canal, Colombo and Singapore 11,808 

Honolulu, Hawaii Via Panama Canal 6,507 

Do Via Magellan Strait 13,264 

Iquique, Chile Via Panama Canal 3,809 

Do Via Magellan Strait 9,095 

Key West, Fla., U. S. A Outside; southbound 927 

Kingston, Jamaica Via Crooked I. and Windward Passages 1,279 

Las Palmas, Canary Is 3,130 

Liverpool, England Winter; eastbound 3,272 

Do Summer; eastbound 3,367 

Livingston, Guatemala Via Straits of Florida; southbound; outside. 1,595 

London, England Winter; eastbound 3,506 

Do Summer; eastbound 3,590 

Malta (Valetta Harbor) 4,352 

Manila, P. I Via Panama, San Francisco and Yokohama. 11,360 

Do Via Panama, Honolulu, Yokahama, Shang- 
hai and Hongkong 12,425 

Do Via Panama, Honolulu and Yokohama 11,658 

Do Via Panama, Honolulu and Guam 11,345 

Do Via Suez Canal, Colombo and Singapore 11,724 

Marseille, France 4,05 7 

Melbourne, Australia Via Panama, Tahiti and Sydney 10,197 

Do Via St. Vincent, Cape Town and Adelaide.. 13,221 

New York (The Battery), N. Y., U. S 292 

Panama, C. Z Via Crooked I. and Windward Passages 1,822 

Philadelphia. Pa., U. S. A 260 

Ponta Delgada, Azores 2,408 

Port Antonio, Jamaica Via Crooked I. and Windward Passages 1,228 

Port Banes, Cuba Via Crooked I. Passage 1,018 

Port Castries, W. I 1,620 

Port Limon, Costa Rica Via Crooked I. and Windward Passages 1,852 

Port Said, Egypt 5,287 

Port Townsend, Wash., U. S. A Via Panama and San Francisco 5,837 

Do Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 13,857 

Portland, Ore., U. S. A Via Panama and San Francisco 5,717 

Do Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 13,737 

Preston, Cuba 1 Via Crooked I. Passage 1,021 

Providence, R. I., U. S. A 398 

Puerto Barrios, Guatemala Via Straits of Florida; southbound; outside. 1,603 

Puerto Cortes, Honduras Via Straits of Florida; southbound; outside. 1,568 

Puerto Mexico, Mexico 1,743 

Punta Arenas, Chile : East of South America 6,900 

Do Via Panama Canal 5,765 

—126— 



NORFOLK— Continued 
Norfolk, Va., U. S. A., to— Route— "^^ Muli 

Quebec, Canada 1,515 

Queenstown, Ireland Winter; eastbound 3,041 

Do Summer; eastbound 3,136 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 4,723 

Rotterdam, Netherlands Winter; eastbound 3,552 

Do Summer; eastbound 3,636 

St. Thomas, W. I 1,296 

St. Vincent (Porto Grande), C. Verde Is 2,973 

San Diego, Cal., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 4,665 

Do Via Magellan Strait 12,695 

San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 5,067 

Do Via .Magellan Strait 13,087 

San [ose, Guatemala Via Panama Canal 2,708 

"Do Via Magellan Strait 11,190 

San Juan, Porto Rico 1,252 

San Juan del Norte [Greytown], Nicar- 
agua Via Crooked I, and Windward Passages 1,837 

Do Via Straits of Florida; southbound; outside. 1,846 

Santa Marta, Colombia Via Crooked I. and Windward Passages 1,588 

Savannah, Ga., U. S. A 499 

Shanshai, China ■ Via Panama, San Francisco and Tsugaru 

Strait 10,454 

Do Via Panama, Honolulu and Yokohama 10,942 

Do Via Suez Canal, Colombo, Singapore and 

Hongkong 12,660 

Sitka, Alaska Via Panama and San Francisco 6,369 

Do Via Magellan Strait and San Francisco 14,389 

Sydney, Australia Via Panama and Tahiti 9,616 

Do. _ - -- Via St. Vincent, Cape Town, Adelaide and 

Melbourne 13,802 

Valparaiso, Chile Via Panama Canal 4,438 

Do -■ Via Magellan Strait 8,332 

Vera Cruz, Mexico 1,794 

Washington, D. C, U. S. A Inside Tail of Horseshoe Lightvessel 173 

Do Outside Tail of Horseshoe Lightvessel 187 

Wellington, New Zealand Via Panama and Tahiti 8,656 

Do Via Magellan Strait 1 1 ,296 

Do Via St. Vincent, Cape Town and Melbourne. 14,500 

Wilmington, N. C, U. S. A _. 358 

Yokohama, Japan Via Panama and San Francisco 9,603 

Do Via Panama and Honolulu 9,901 

Do Via Suez, Colombo, Singapore, Hongkong 

and Shanghai 13 ,701 

PAITA 

B •. n u. Nautical 

Paita, Peru, to— Miles 

Antofaeasta, Chile 1,299 

Apia, Samoa Is 5,365 

Arica, Chile ■-- 1,080 

Caldera, Chile 1,461 

Callao, Peru 505 

Coquimbo, Chile, 1,609 

Honolulu, Hawaii 4,725 

Iquiquc, Chile 1,146 

Lota, Chile 1,983 

Mollendo, Peru 955 

Pascasmayo, Peru 201 

Pisco, Peru 617 

Punta Arenas, Chile 3,101 

Tahiti (Papeete), Society Is 4,082 

Talcahuano, Chile 1,963 

Valdivia (Port Corral), Chile 2,141 

Valparaiso, Chile 1,774 



PANAMA ROADS 
Panama Roads, Canal Zone, to— Route— '^^ mmIs 

Acajutla, Salvador 833 

Acaptilco, Mexico 1,426 

Amapala, Honduras 745 

Antofagasta, Chile 2,140 

Antwerp, Belgium Via Mona Passage 4,851 

Apalachicola, Florida, U. S. A 1,330 

Apia, Samoa Is 5,710 

Arica, Chile 1,921 

Auckland, New Zealand 6,512 

Baltimore, Md., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,944 

Barbados (Bridgetown), W. I 1,280 

Belize, British Honduras 859 

Bishops Rock (lat. 49° 50' N., long. 6° 

27' W.) Via Anegada Passage 4,438 

Do Via Mona Passage 4,399 

Blanche Bay, Neu Pommern 7,807 

Bluefields, Nicaragua 319 

Bocas del Toro, Panama 187 

Bombay, India Via San Bernardino Strait 12,957 

Bordeaux, France Via Mona Passage ^ 4,641 

Boston, Mass., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages and 

outside Nantucket Lightvessel 2,200 

Brunswick, Ga., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,593 

Buenaventura, Colombia 352 

Calcutta, India Via San Bernardino Strait 12,148 

Caldera, Chile 2,302 

Caleta Buena (Buena Cove), Chile 1,977 

Callao, Peru 1,346 

Campeche, Mexico 1,210 

Cape Engano, Luzon I., P. I 8,965 

Cape Haitien, Haiti 860 

Cape San Lucas, Mexico 2,100 

Caragues River, Ecuador 571 

Carmen, Mexico ' 1,289 

Cartagena, Colombia 324 

Ceiba, Honduras 709 

Charleston, S. C, U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,607 

Chimbote, Peru 1,158 

Christmas I., N. Pacific Ocean 4,752 

Cienfuegos, Cuba 815 

Colombo, Ceylon Via San Bernardino Strait and Iloilo 12,087 

Coquimbo, Chile , 2,451 

Corinto, Nicaragua 683 

Coronel, Chile 2,822 

Curacao (Santa Ana Harbor), W. I 742 

Dutch Harbor, Alaska 5,245 

Enderbury I., Phoenix Is 5,599 

Esmeraldas, Ecuador 474 

EtenHead, Peru 1,012 

Fakarava, Tuamotu Archipelago 4,256 

Fort de France, Martinique , W. I 1,202 

Funafuti I., Ellice Is 6,217 

Galapagos Is., San Cristobal I. (Wreck 

Bay) 864 

Galveston, Texas, U. S. A 1,536 

Gibraltar Via Anegada Passage 4,375 

Do Via St. Thomas, W. I... 4,386 

Gracias a Dios, Nicaragua 442 

Grijalva [Tabasco R.], Mexico 1,323 

Guam (Port Apra), Marianas 7,988 

Guantanamo Bay (Caimanera), Cuba 739 

Guayaquil (Puna), Ecuador 793 

Guaymas, Mexico 2,370 

Gulfport, Miss., U. S. A Northbound L431 

—128— 



PANAMA ROADS^Continued 

Panama Roads, Canal Zone, to — Route — ^Vnes 

Havana, Cuba 1,046 

Hakodate, Japan 7,418 

Halifax, N.'S Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 2,360 

Hamburg, Germany Via Mona Passage, direct 5,113 

Do Via St. Thomas, W. I 5,158 

Hampton Roads (off light), Va., U. S. Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,811 

Havre, France Via Mona Passage 4,653 

Hilo, Hawaii 4,527 

Hongkong, China 9,195 

Honolulu, Hawaii 4,685 

Iquique, Chile 1,987 

Iriona, Honduras 609 

Jacksonville, Fla., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,559 

Jaluit, Marshall Is 6,666 

Johnston I., Hawaii 5,359 

Junin, Chile 1,967 

"Key West, Fla., U. S. A 1,108 

Kingston, Jamaica, W. I 594 

Kiska I., Alaska 5,819 

Kusaiel. (Lollo Hbr.), Caroline Is 7,059 

La Guaira, Venezuela 884 

La Union, Salvador 748 

Levuka, Fiji Is 6,288 

Libertad Anch., Sonora, Mexico 2,534 

Liverpool, England Via Mona Passage 4,591 

Livingston, Guatemala 815 

Los Angeles Hbr. (San Pedro), Cal., U.S 2,913 

Lota, Chile 2,825 

Magdalena Bay, Mexico 2,265 

Manila, P. I Via Cape San Lucas and Balintang Channel. 9,347 

Do Via San Bernardino Strait 9,370 

Manta Bay, Ecuador 594 

Marquesas Is., Naku Hiva (Taiohae) .. 3,826 

Marshall Is., (Eniwetok Atoll) 7,041 

Matagorda Bay (Entr), Texas, U. S. A 1,558 

Mazatlan, Mexico — 2,006 

Mejillones Del Sur, Chile _. 2,109 

Melbourne, Australia Via Foveaux Strait 7,928 

Midway Is. (Welles Harbor) 5,707 

Mobile, Ala., U. S. A Northbound 1,436 

Mollendo, Peru 1,796 

Monkey Pt. Harbor, Nicaragua 302 

Montreal, Canada Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages and 

GutofCanso 3,203 

Naples, Italy Via Anegada Passage 5,351 

New Hebrides (St. Philip and St. James 

Bay) .6,956 

New Orleans, La., U. S. A Via South Pass; northbound 1,446 

Do ^^ia Southwest Pass; northbound 1,453 

New York (The Battery), N. Y., U. S.._Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 2,017 

Newport News, Va., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,819 

Nonuti L, Gilbert Is 6,439 

Norfolk, Va., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,822 

Noumea, New Caledonia 6,982 

Nukonono, Union Is 5,688 

Pacasmayo, Peru 1,040 

Paeo Pago, Samoa Is 5,656 

Paita, Peru 857 

Pelew Is. (Korror Harbor) 8,674 

Pensacola, Fla., U. S. A Northbound 1,412 

Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,989 

Pisagua, Chile 1,962 

Pisco, Peru 1,458 

Plymouth, England Via St. Thomas, W. I 4,543 

—129— 



PANAMA ROADS— Continued 
Panama Roads, Canal Zone, to — Route — "^^ MMes 

Point a Pitre, Guadeloupe, W. I . 1,211 

Ponape, Caroline Is 7,321 

Port Arthur, Texas, U. S. A 1,528 

Port au Prince, Haiti 817 

Port Castries, S. Lucia, W. I 1,203 

Port Limon, Costa Rica 235 

Port Lloyd, Ogasawara Is 7,766 

Port Morelos, Yucatan 871 

Port Royal, Jamaica, W. I 589 

Port of Spain, Trinidad, W. I 1,202 

Port Taltal, Chile 2,225 

Port Tampa, Fla., U. S. A 1,255 

Port Townsend, Wash., U. S. A 3,985 

Portland, Me., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages; 

outside Nantucket Lightvessel 2,241 

Portland, Ore., U. S. A . . 3,869 

Prince Rupert, B. C 4,425 

Puerto Barrios, Guatemala 823 

Puerto Cabello, Venezuela 845 

Puerto Cortes, Honduras 776 

Puerto Mexico, Mexico 1,420 

Punta Arenas, Chile 3,943 

Punta Arenas, Costa Rica 471 

Quebec, Canada Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages and 

Gut of Canso . 3,065 

Raoul I. (East Anch.), Kermadec Is 6,125 

Rarotonga I. (Avarua Harbor) 5,095 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 4,392 

Rio Grande (Entr.) 1,527 

Roatan I. (Coxen Hole) 684 

Sabine, Texas, U. S. A . 1,519 

Seattle, Wash., U. S. A 4,021 

St. Thomas, W. I 1,072 

Salaverry, Peru 1,109 

Salina Cruz, Mexico 1,170 

San Bernardino Strait (Entr.), P. I 9,060 

San Bias, Mexico 1,914 

San Diego, Cal., U. S. A 2,843 

San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A 3,245 

San lose, Guatemala .. 886 

San Juan, P. R 1,036 

San Juan del Norte, Nicaragua 289 

San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua 590 

Santa Barbara, Cal., U. S. A 2,980 

Santo Domingo, Dominican Rep 845 

Savannah, Ga., U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,606 

Seattle, Wash., U. S. A 4,021 

Shanghai, China Via Honolulu 9,015 

Do Via Osumi [Van Diemen] Strait_ 8,650 

Do ViaTsugaru Strait 8,556 

Singapore, Straits Settlements Via San Bernardino Strait 10,505 

Southport, N. C, U. S. A Via Windward and Crooked I. Passages 1,635 

Strait of Gibraltar (lat. 35° 57' N., long. 

5° 45' W.) Via Anegada Passage 4,351 

Sydney, Australia 7,674 

Tacoma, Wash., U. S. A 4,041 

Tahiti (Papeete), Society Is 4,486 

Talcahuano, Chile 2,805 

Tampico, Mexico 1,528 

Tela, Honduras 749 

Tocopilla, Chile 2,068 

Tongatabu (Nukualofa), Tonga Is 5,953 

Tru j illo, Honduras 665 

Tumaco, Colombia 422 

Tuxpam, Mexico 1 ,498 

—130— 



PANAMA ROADS-^Continued 

Panama Roads, Canal Zone, to — Route— ^Vnes 

Ugi I. (Selwyn Bay, Solomon Is 7,248 

Uracas I., Marianas 7,797 

Valdivia (P. Corral), Chile 2,983 

Valparaiso, Chile 2,616 

Vancouver, B. C 4,032 

Vera Cruz, Mexico 1,463 

Victoria, B. C 3,962 

Vladivostok, Siberia Via Tsugaru Strait 7,833 

Wellington, New Zealand 6,505 

Yap I.'(Tomill Hbr.), Caroline Is . 8,430 

Yokohama, Japan Via Cape San Lucas and G. C 7,682 

Do ViaMazatlan 7,788 

Do Via San Francisco 7,781 



PORT TOWNSEND 

Port Townsend, Wash., U. S., to — Route — ^'mmcs 

Amoy, China Via Tsugaru Strait and Composite route 5,450 

Do Via Osumi (Van Diemen) Strait and Com- 
posite route 5,477 

Do Via Unimak Passage and Tsugaru St 5,442 

Do Via Unimak Passage, Amphitrite Straits and 

La Perouse 5,434 

Antwerp, Belgium Via San Francisco and Panama Canal 8,866 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan Strait 14,391 

Apia, Samoa Is 4,577 

Auckland, New Zealand ,- 6,134 

Baltimore, Md., U. S. A Via San Francisco and Panama Canal 5,959 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan Strait 13,979 

Batavia, Java Via Balintang Channel and Composite route. 7,323 

Blanche Bay, Neu Pommern 5,462 

Bordeaux, France Via San Francisco and Panama Canal 8,656 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan Strait 14,032 

Boston, Mass., U. S. A Via San Francisco and Panama Canal 6,215 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan Strait 13,876 

Calcutta, India Via Rhumb to Yokohama 8,970 

Canton, China Via Osumi (Van Diemen) Strait and Com- 
posite route 5,814 

Do Via Tsugaru St. and Composite route 5,792 

Do Via Unimak Passage and Tsugaru St 5,764 

Cape Ergano, Luzon L., P. I 5,515 

Cebu, Cebu Island, P. I 5,870 

Charleston, S. C, U. S. A Via San Francisco and Panama Canal 5,622 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan Strait 13,856 

Chefoo, China Via Tsugaru St. and Composite route 5,102 

Do Via Unimak Passage and Tsugaru Strait 5,074 

Do Via Osumi (Van Diemen) Strait 5,340 

Do . - Via Unimak Passage, Amphitrite and La 

Perouse : 5,084 

Christmas Island, N. Pacific Ocean 3,344 

Colombo, Ceylon Via Balintang Channel, Malakka Straits and 

Composite route 8,616 

Comox, B. C. Via Active Passage 145 

Dutch Harbor, Unalaska I., Alaska 1,670 

Enderbury I., Phoenix Is 4,012 

Fakarava I., Tuamotu Archipelago 4,120 

Foochow, China Via Osumi (Van Diemen) Strait and Com- 
posite route 5,364 

Do Via Tsugaru St. and Composite route 5,328 

Do Via Unimak Passage and Tsugaru St 5,300 

Do Via Unimak Passage, Amphitrite Straits and 

La Perouse 5,313 

—131— 



PORT TOWNSEND— Continued 
Port Townsend, Wash., U. S., to— Route— '^^ Miles 

Funafuti I., Ellice Is 4,692 

Galapagos Is., San Cristobol I., (Wreck 

Bay) 3,734 

Galveston, Texas Via San Francisco and Panama Canal 5,551 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan Strait 14,497 

Gibraltar Via San Francisco, Panama Canal and Ane- 

gada Passage 8,390 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan Strait 13,341 

Guam (Port Apra) Marianas : 4,913 

Hakodate, Japan Composite 3, 915 

Do Via Unimak Passage 3,887 

Hamburg, Germany Via San Francisco, Panama and Mona Pas- 
sage ■__ 9,128 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan Strait 14,653 

Hongkong Via Osumi (Van Diemen) Strait and Com- 
posite route 5,731 

Do Via Rhumb to Yokohama 5,992 

Do Via Tsugaru Strait and Composite route 5,709 

Do Via Unimak Passage and Tsugaru Strait 5,681 

Honolulu, Hawaii 2,366 

Iloilo, P. I 5,892 

Jacksonville, Florida, U. S. A Via San Francisco and Panama Canal 5,574 

Do Via San. Francisco and Magellan Strait 13,875 

Jaluit, Marshall Is 4,259 

Jinsen (Chemulpo) Via Unimak Passage, Amphitrite Straits and 

La Perouse 4,977 

Do Via Unimak Passage and Tsugaru Strait 4,967 

Do Via Tsugaru St. and Composite route 4,995 

Do Via'Osumi (Van Diemen) Strait 5,242 

Johnson Island, Hawaii 2,978 

Kiska I. (Kiska Harbor), Alaska Via Unimak Passage 2,257 

Kobe, Japan Composite 4,500 

Kodiak, Alaska 1,229 

Kusaie I. (Lollo Harbor), Caroline Is 4,542 

Levuka, Fiji Is , 5,083 

.Liverpool, England Via San Francisco and Panama Canal 8,606 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan St 14,272 

Manila, P. I Composite Great Circle 5,931 

Marquesas Is., Nukuhiva (Taiohae) 3,628 

Marshall Islands (Eniwetok Atoll) ... 4,3 15 

Mobile, Alabama, U. S. A Via San Francisco and Panama Canal 5,429 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan Strait 14,268 

Nagasaki, Japan Via Tsugaru St. and Composite 4,700 

Do Via Osumi (Van Diemen) St. and Composite. 4,832 

New Hebrides (St. Philip and St. James 

Bay) 5,344 

New Orleans, La., U. S. A Via San Francisco, Panama and southwest 

Pass 5,457 

Do ■. Via San Francisco, Magellan St. and south 

Pass 14,321 

New York, N. Y., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 6,002 

Do Via Magellan Strait 13,873 

Nonuti Island, Gilbert Islands 4,395 

Norfolk, Va.. U. S. A Via San Francisco and Panama Canal 5,837 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan St 13,857 

Noumea, New Caledonia 5,729 

Nukonono, Union Is 4,345 

Panama Road, C. Z 3,985 

Pelew Is. (Korror Harbor) 5,587 

Pensacola, Florida, U. S. A Via San Francisco and Panama 5,402 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan St 14,288 

Petropavlovsk, Kamchatka Via Unimak Passage 2,905 

—132— 



PORT TOWNSEND— Continued 

Port Townsend, Wash., U. S., to — Route — ^"mucs 

Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A Via San Francisco and Panama Canal 6,004 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan St 13,952 

Port Lloyd, Ogasawara Is 4,416 

Port Tampa, Florida, U. S. A Via San Francisco and Panama Canal 5,270 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan St 14,023 

Portland, Maine, U. S. A Via San Francisco and Panama Canal 6,256 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan St 13,907 

Punta Arenas, Chile 6,93 1 

Raoul Island (East Anch.), Kermadee 

Islands 5,547 

Rarotonga I. (Avarua Hbr.), Cook Is 4,665 

Ryojun (Port Arthur), Kwangtung, Man- 
churia Via Tsugaru St. and Composite route 5,143 

Do Via Unimak Passage and Tsugaru St 5,115 

Do Via Unimak Passage, Amphitrite Sts. and . 

La Perouse 5,125 

Do .. Via Osumi (Van Diemen) St 5,381 

San Bernardino Strait (Entr.), P. I 5,714 

San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A - 770 

Savannah, Georgia, U. S. A Via San Francisco and Panama Canal 5,621 

Do Via San Francisco and Magellan St 13,888 

Seattle, Wash 38 

Shanghai, China Via Unimak Passage, Amphitrite Sts. and 

La Perouse 5,035 

Do Via Osumi (Van Diemen) St. and Composite. 5,186 

Do Via Tsugaru St. and Composite 5,053 

Do Via Unimak Passage and Tsugaru 5,025 

Shimonoseki, Japan Via Composite route from Yokohama and 

Bungo Channel 4,689 

Do Via Tsugaru St. and Composite route 4,583 

Singapore, Straits Settlements Via Composite route and Balintang Channel. 7,034 

Sitka, Alaska Via Juan de Fuca Strait and outside 772 

Swatow, China Via Composite route and Osumi (Van Die- 
men) Strait 5,581 

Do Via Composite route and Tsugaru St 5,559 

Do Via Unimak Passage and Tsugaru St 5,531 

Tahiti (Papeete), Society Islands ' 4,260 

Taku, China Via Unimak Passage, Amphitrite Sts. and 

La Perouse 5,278 

Do Via Osumi (Van Diemen) Strait 5,534 

Do Via Composite route and Tsugaru Strait 5,296 

Do Via Unimak Passage and Tsugaru Strait 5,268 

Tansui Harbor, Taiwan (Formosa) Via Unimak Passage, Amphitrite Strait and 

La Perouse 5,272 

Do Via Osumi (Van Diemen) St. and Composite. 5,292 

Do Via Composite and Tsugaru St 5,283 

Do Via Unimak Passage and Tsugaru St 5,255 

Ugi I. (Selwyn Bay), Solomon Is 5,310 

Uracas I., Marianas 4,585 

Vancouver, B. C 95 

Victoria, Vancouver Island, B. C.l 35 

Vladivostok, Siberia Via Akutan Passage and Tsugaru St 4,300 

Do Via Unimak Passage, Amphitrite Sts. and 

La Perouse 4,183 

Do Via Composite route and Tsugaru St 4,330 

Do Via Unimak Passage and Tsugaru St 4,302 

Weihaiwei, China Via Unimak Passage and Tsugaru St. and 

La Perouse 5,050 

Do Via Osumi (Van Diemen) St 5,306 

Do Via Composite route and Tsugaru St 5,068 

Do Via Unimak Passage and Tsugaru St 5,040 

Yap I. (Tomill Hbr.), Caroline Is 'l .' 5,346 

Yokohama, Japan Composite; south of Aleutian Islands 4,218 

Do Via Rhumb 4,469 

—133— 



SAN DIEGO 
San Diego, Cal., U. S. A., to- '*' Miles 

Acapulco, Mexico 1,431 

Antofagasta, Chile 4,360 

Arica, Chile 4,149 

Caldera, Chile 4,492 

Callao, Peru 3,585 

Chimbote, Peru 3,402 

Coquimbo, Chile 4,605 

Corinto, Nicaragua 2,211 

Esmeraldas, Ecuador 2,940 

Guayaquil (Puna), Ecuador 3,112 

Guaymas, Mexico 1,088 

Hilo, Hawaii 2,175 

Iquique, Chile 4,218 

Los Angeles Harbor, Cal., U. S. A 97 

Lota, Chile - 4,881 

Magdalena Bay, Mexico 600 

Manzanillo, Mexico 1,136 

Mazatlan, Mexico 939 

Midway Is. (Welles Harbor) 3,097 

Mollendo, Peru 4,024 

Pacasmayo, Peru 3 ,286 

Paita, Peru j 3,121 

Panama, C. Z 2,843 

Pisco. Peru 3,695 

Portland, Ore., U. S. A 1,073 

Punta Arenas, Chile 5,801 

Punta Arenas, Costa Rica 2,429 

Salina Cruz, Mexico 1,733 

San Bias, Mexico 1,015 

San Jose, Guatemala 1,993 

Talcahuano, Chile 4,869 

Valdivia (Port Corral), Chile 5,007 

Valparaiso, Chile 4,738 

SAN FRANCISCO 

San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A., to — Route — ^ mmIs 

Acaj u tla, Salvador 2,446 

Acapulco, Mexico 1,833 

Amapala, Honduras 2,586 

Antilla, Cuba Via Panama Canal 4,132 

Antofagasta, Chile 4,762 

Antwerp, Belgium Via Panama Canal 8,096 

Arica, Chile -_ 4,551 

Aux Caves, Haiti Via Panama Canal 3,933 

Bahia, Brazil Via Panama Canal 6,956 

Bahia Blanca, Argentina Via Panama Canal 9,021 

Baltimore, Md., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 5,189 

Belize, British Honduras Via Panama Canal 4,104 

Bermuda Island Via Panama Canal 4,931 

Bishops Rock (lat. 49° 50' N., long. 6° 

27' W.) Via Panama Canal and Mona Passage 7,644 

Bluefields, Nicaragua Via Panama Canal 3,564 

Bocas del Toro, Panama 3,432 

Boston, Mass., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 5,445 

Bremen, Germany Via Panama Canal 8,338 

Bremerton (U. S. Naval Sta.), Wash 815 

Bridgetown, Barbados Via Panama Canal 4,525 

Buenos Aires, Argentine Via Panama Canal 8,738 

Buenaventura, Colombia 3,644 

—134— 



SAN FRANCISCO— Continued 
San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A., to — Route — ^Itfinls 

Caldera, Chile 4,894 

Caleta Buena (Buena Cove), Chile 4,608 

Callao, Peru 3,987 

Cape Haitien, Haiti Via Panama Canal 4,105 

Cape Wrangell, Attu I., Alaska 2,798 

Caragues, River, Ecuador 3,366 

Cartagena, Colombia Via Panama Canal 3,569 

Cayenne, Guiana Via Panama Canal 5,553 

Charleston, S. C, U. S. A Via Panama Canal 4,852 

Chimbote, Peru 3,804 

Copenhagen, Denmark . Via Panama and Mona Passage 8,638 

Coquimbo, Chile 5,007 

Corinto, Nicaragua 2,613 

Dutch Harbor, Alaska Via Sitka 2,386 

Esmeraldas, Ecuador 3,342 

Eten, Peru 3,656 

Flavel, Ore., U. S. A 561 

Fort de France, Martinique Via Panama Canal 4,443 

Georgetown, British Guiana Via Panama Canal 4,803 

Guayaquil (Puna), Ecuador 3,514 

Guaymas, Mexico 1 ,490 

Havana, Cuba Via Panama Canal 4,291 

Halifax, N. S Via Panama Canal 5,605 

Hamburg, Germany Via Panama Canal 8,358 

Havre, France Via Panama Canal 7,898 

Hongkong 6,306 

Honolulu, Hawaii 2,091 

Iquique, Chile 4,620 

Jacksonville, Fla., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 4,804 

jacmel, Haiti 3,971 

Junin, Chile 4,598 

Key West, Fla., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 4,353 

Kingston, Jamaica Via Panama Canal 3,839 

Kiska I., Alaska 2,629 

La Guaira, Venezuela Via Panama Canal 1-. 4,129 

La Union, Salvador 2,586 

Liverpool, England Via Panama Canal 7,836 

Do Via Magellan Strait 13,502 

London, England Via Panama and Mona Passage 8,051 

Lota, Chile 5,282 

Magdalena Bay, Mexico 1,002 

Manila, P. I Via Balintang Channel 6,221 

Do Via San Bernardino Strait 6,301 

Do Via Honolulu and N. end of Luzon, P. I 6,960 

Do Via Honolulu, Guam and N. end of Luzon, 

P. I 7,170 

Do \'ia Honolulu, Guam and San Bernardino 

Suait 6,929 

Do_ \'ia Honolulu, Yokohama and Balintang 

Channel 7,242 

Do Via Yokohama and Balintang Channel 6,293 

Do Via Yokohama, Osumi [Van Diemen] Str., 

and Hongkong 6,752 

Do Via Yokohama, Inland Sea and Nagasaki _- 6,575 

Do Via Yokohama, Osumi [Van Diemen] Str., 

and Nagasaki 6,522 

Do Via Osumi [Van Diemen] Str., and Nagasaki 6,457 

—135— 



SAN FRANCISCO— Continued 

San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A., to— Route— "^^ mmII 

Manta, Ecuador 3, 370 

Manzanillo, Mexico 1 538 

Maracaibo, Venezuela Via Panama Canal 3,888 

Mare I. (Navy Yard), Cal., U. S. A 23 

Mazatlan, Mexico 1 337 

Mejillones del Sur, Chile 4,734 

Midway Is. (Welles Harbor) 2,792 

Mollendo, Peru 4,426 

Monte Cristi, D. R Via Panama Canal 4,126 

Monterey, Cal., U. S. A 95 

Montevideo, Uruguay Via Panama Canal 8,624 

Nagasaki, Japan Via Yokohama and Inland Sea 5,269 

Naples, Italy Via Panama Canal 8,596 

Nassau, New Providence Island Via Panama Canal 4,664 

Newcastle, Australia 6,467 

New Orleans, La., U. S. A Via Panama Canal and South Pass 4,691 

Do Via Panama Canal and Southwest Pass 4,698 

Newport News, Va., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 5,064 

New York (The Battery), N. Y., U. S...Via Cape Horn 13,328 

Do Via Magellan Strait 13,135 

Do Via Panama Canal 5,262 

Norfolk, Va., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 5,067 

Pacasmayo, Peru 3,688 

Pago Pago, Samoa Is 4,150 

Paita, Peru 3,523 

Panama, C. Z 3,245 

Para, Brazil Via Panama Canal 5,597 

Paramaribo, Guiana Via Panama Canal 4,936 

Pernambuco, Brazil Via Panama Canal 6,565 

Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 5,234 

Pichilinque, Mexico 1 ,300 

Pisagua, Chile 4,593 

Pisco, Peru 4,097 

Plymouth, England Via Panama and Mona Passage 7,788 

Pointe a Pitre, Guadaloupe Via Panama Canal 4,456 

Ponce, Porto Rico Via Panama Canal 4,221 

Port Antonio, Jamaica Via Panama Canal 3,870 

Port au Prince, Haiti Via Panama Canal 4,062 

Port Castries (St. Lucia), W. I Via Panama Canal 4,448 

Port Limon, Costa Rica Via Panama Canal 3,480 

Port of Spain Via Panama Canal 4,447 

Port Taltal, Chile 4,838 

Port Townsend, Wash., U. S. A 770 

Porto Plata Via Panama Canal 4,187 

Portland, Me., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 5,486 

Portland, Ore., U. S. A 650 

Prince Rupert, British Columbia 1,204 

Progreso, Mexico Via Panama Canal 4,314 

Puerto Barrios, Guatemala Via Panama Canal 4,068 

Puerto Cabello, Venezuela Via Panama Canal 4,090 

Puerto Cortez, Honduras Via Panama Canal 4,021 

Punta Arenas, Chile 6,193 

Punta Arenas, Costa Rica 2,831 

Quebec, Canada Via Panama Canal 6,301 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Via Panama Canal . 7,637 

Do Via Magellan Strait 8,430 

—136— 



SAN FRANCISCO— Continued 
San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A., to— Route— '^^ Mites 

Roseau, Dominica Via Panama Canal 4,440 

St. George, Grenada Via Panama Canal 4,406 

St. John, New Brunswick Via Panama Canal 5,606 

St. John, Newfoundland Via Panama Canal 5,987 

Salaverry, Peru 3, 750 

Salina Cruz, Mexico 2,135 

Samana Bay, D. R Via Panama Canal 4,239 

San Bias, Mexico 1,417 

Sanchez, D. R Via Panama Canal 4,255 

San Diego, Cal., U. S. A 452 

San Jose, Guatemala 2,395 

San Juan, P. R Via Panama Canal 4,281 

Santa Barbara, Cal., U. S. A 288 

Santiago, Cuba Via Panama Canal 3,971 

Santo Domingo, D. R Via Panama Canal 4,090 

Santos, Brazil Via Panama Canal 7,824 

Savanilla, Colombia Via Panama Canal 3,602 

Savannah, Ga., U. S. A Via Panama Canal 4,851 

Seattle, Wash., U. S. A 804 

Seward, Alaska 1,701 

Sitka, Alaska 1,302 

Southampton, England Via Panama Canal 7,863 

Stockholm, Sweden Via Panama Canal 9,185 

Sydney, Australia Via Honolulu, Pago Pago and Auckland 7,212 

Do Via Honolulu and Pago Pago 6,744 

Tacoma, Wash., U. S. A 826 

Talcahuano, Chile 5,270 

Tampico, Mexico Via Panama Canal 4,773 

Tientsin, China Via Yokohama, Bungo Channel and north 

of Quelpart I 5,918 

Tocopilla, Chile 4,699 

Tumaco, Colombia 3, 356 

Valdivia (Port Corral), Chile 5,407 

Valparaiso, Chile 5,140 

Vancouver, B. C Via Haro Strait 823 

Do Via Active Pass 812 

Vera Cruz, Mexico Via Panama Canal 4,708 

Victoria, B. C 745 

Wllliamsted, Curacao Via Panama Canal 3,985 

Yokohama, Japan Great Circle 4,536 

Do Rhumb 4,799 

WILLAPA HARBOR 
Willapa Harbor, Wash., "Whistle Buoy," lo— Route— '*^ Mi lis 

Astoria, Ore 38 

Eureka, Humboldt Bay 355 

Grays Harbor, "Whistle Buoy" 15>^ 

Honolulu, Hawaii 2,268 

Los Angeles Harbor (San Pedro), Cal. 956 

Manila, P. I Via Honolulu 7,035 

Port Townsend, Wash . 194 

San Francisco 588 

Seattle, Wash 233 

Tacoma, Wash 258 

Vancouver, B. C 254 

Victoria, B. C 170 

—137— 



YOKOHAMA 
Yokohama, Japan, to— Route— ''^mhIs 

Amoy, China Via Osumi [Van Diemen] Strait 1,331 

Batavia, Java 3,194 

Canton, China 1 ,668 

Cebu, P. I Via San Bernardino Strait 1,762 

Chefoo, China Via Bungo Channel and Shimonoseki Strait. 1,140 

Do Via Inland Sea 1,177 

Do Via Osumi [Van Diemen] Strait 1,194 

Chemulpo, Chosen [Korea] Via Bungo Channel and Shimonoseki Strait. 1,033 

Chemulpo, Chosen [Korea] Via Inland Sea 1,070 

Colombo, Cevlon 4,487 

Columbia River Entr., Ore., U. S. A 4,208 

Foochow, China 1,217 

Guam (Port Apra), Marianas 1,353 

Hakodate, Japan 532 

Hongkong 1,585 

Honolulu, Hawaii 3,394 

Iloilo, P. I Via San Bernardino Strait 1,784 

Iqulque, Chile 9,026 

Kobe, Japan 346 

Liverpool, England Via Pago Pago and Magellan Strait 16,584 

Los Angeles Hbr., (San Pedro), Cal 4,839 

Manila, P. I Via Balintang Channel . 1,757 

Do Via Kobe, Inland Sea, Nagasaki, Shanghai 

and Hongkong 2,683 

Mazatlan, Mexico 5,782 

Nagasaki, Japan Via Inland Sea 733 

Do Via Osumi [Van Diemen] Strait 680 

Pago Pago, Samoa Is 4,133 

Panama, C. Z Via Great Circle to Cape San Lucas 7,682 

Do Via Mazatlan, Mexico 7,788 

Do Via San Francisco 7,781 

Petropavlovsk, Kamchatka 1,425 

Port Townsend, Wash., U. S. A Composite; south of Aleutian Islands 4,218 

Prince Rupert, B. C Composite; south of Aleutian Islands 3,862 

Ryojun [Port Arthur], Kwangtung, Man- 
churia Via Bungo Channel and Shimonoseki St 1,181 

Do _Via Inland Sea 1,218 

San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A Great Circle 4,536 

Seattle, Wash., U. S. A Composite; south of Aleutian Islands 4,255 

Shanghai, China Via Inland Sea 1,117 

Do Via Osumi [Van Diemen] Strait 1,041 

Do Via Kobe and Nagasaki 1,200 

Shimonoseki, Japan Via Bungo Channel 544 

Do Via Inland Sea 581 

Singapore, Straits Settlements 2,905 

Sitka, Alaska Via Dutch Hbr., Alaska 3,631 

Swatow, China 1,435 

Sydney, Australia 4,375 

Taku, China Via Bungo Channel and Shimonoseki St 1,334 

Do Via Inland Sea 1,371 

Do Via Inland Sea and south of Quelpart I 1,417 

Tansui Harbor, Taiwan [Formosa] Via Osumi [Van Diemen] Strait 1,146 

Tientsin, China Via Inland Sea and south of Quelpart I 1,465 

Vancouver, B. C Composite; south of Aleutian Is 4,262 

Victoria, Vancouver I., B. C Composite; south of Aleutian Is 4,194 

Vladivostok, Siberia Via Tsugaru Strait 949 

Wake I., N. Pacific Ocean . 1,740 

Weihaiwei, China Via Bungo Channel and Shominoseki St 1,106 

Do Via Inland Sea 1,143 

Wunsung, China Via outside route 1,029 

Do Via Inland Sea 1,105 

Do Via Kobe and Nagasaki 1,188 

Yingkow (Newchwang), China Via Inland Sea 1,362 

Zamboanga, Mindanao I., P. I Via Guam and south of Mindanao I 2,820 

Do Via Guam and Surigao Strait 2,837 

—138— 



SAN FRANCISCO 

DISTANCES FROM SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., U. S. A., TO DOMESTIC, MEXICAN AND 
BRITISH COLUMBIA PORTS AND COAST POINTS 



Nautical 
Miles 

Anacortes, Wash 796 

Anchorage, Alaska 1,872 

Astoria, Ore 555 

Bellingham, Wash 810 

Bodega Head 51 

Bolinas 16 

Bremerton, Wash 815 

Cape Arago 372 

Cape Blanco 341 

Cape Disappointment 545 

Cape Flattery, Wash ' 680 

Cape Fortuna 200 

Cape Foulweather 464 

Cape Lookout 486 

Cape Mendocino 195 

Cape Perpetua 433 

Cape San Martin 147 

Cape St. George 276 

Carpenteria 312 

Cayucos 193 

Columbia River Bar 540 

Coos Bay 375 

Coquille River 360 

Crescent City 274 

Destruction Island 634 

Douglas Island 1,593 

Dutch Harbor 2,051 

Dutch Harbor via Sitka 2,386 

Onsenada 496 

Eureka (Humboldt Bay) 216 

Everett, Wash 797 

False Tillamook 511 

Flattery Rocks 667 

Flavel, Ore 561 

Gaviota 275 

Goleta 296 

Grays Harbor 558 

Guaymas, Mexico 1 ,490 

Hueneme 337 

Humboldt Bay 216 

Juneau, Alaska 1,596 

killisnoo 1,299 

Kiska Island, Alaska 2,629 

Klawak 1,472 

Kotzebue Sound 2,927 

Ladysmith, B. C 804 

La Paz 1,722 

Lompoc Landing 241 

Loring 1,381 

Los Angeles Harbor 368 

Magdalena Bay 1,002 

Mazatlan 1,478 

Mendocino 123 

Monterey 93 

Moro Bay 198 

Nanaimo, B. C 828 

Newport 411 

New Westminster, B. C 829 

Nome, Alaska 2,705 



Nautical 
Miles 

Olympia, Wash 862 

Pigeon Point 45 

Pillar Point 26 

Point Arena 100 

Point Arguello 252 

Point Bonita 7 

Point Buchon 206 

Point Conception 263 

Point Cypress 100 

Point Duma 360 

Point Fermin 391 

Point Gorda 184 

Point Lobos l)/2 

Point Loma 475 

Point New Year 50 

Point Pedro 19 

Point Piedras Blancas 166 

Point Reyes 33 

Point Sal 232 

Point San Luis 215 

Point Sur 115 

Point Tomales 46 

Point Vincent 384 

Port Clarence 2,723 

Portland, Ore 650 

Port Orford _' 336 

Port San Luis 216 

Port Townsend 770 

Powell River, B. C 868 

Redondo 379 

Rogue River 313 

San Diego 482 

San Jose del Cabo 1,192 

San Luis Obispo 226 

San Simeon 172 

Santa Barbara 288 

Santa Cruz 71 

Santa Monica 372 

San Pedro 393 

Santa Rosalia 1,895 

Seattle, Wash 804 

Shelter Cove 165 

Shoalwater Bay 569 

Sitka, Alaska 1,302 

St. Michael 2,705 

Table Bluff 212 

Tacoma, Wash... 826 

Tillamook Bay 499 

Tillamook Head 523 

Trinidad 233 

Umpqua River 394 

Unalaska 2,051 

Union Bay, B. C 875 

Vancouver, B. C 833 

Ventura 327 

Victoria, B. C 750 

Willapa Hbr. "Whistle Buoy" 588 

Wrangle, Alaska 1,448 

Yakuina Bay 454 



—139— 



INDEX 



Acapulco, distance to Pacific Ports 112 

Addition of fractions 20 

Addition, to compute board ft. by 24 

Airplane lumber, Douglas Fir 5 

Airplane lumber. Port Orford Cedar IG 

Airplane lumber, Sitka Spruce 84 

Annual rings, density, decay 54 

Annual rings, to determine strength by 54 

Antwerp, distances to World Ports 112 

Areas, metric equivalents 87-88 

Aspen, for pulp purposes 12 

Astoria, distances to Columbia and Wil- 
lamette Rivers 113 

Astoria, distances to Pacific Ports 113 

Average lengths, to compute 32 

Average thickness, to compute 31-32 

Average, to compute balance of order 32 

Average widths, to compute 31 

B 
Ballast, "monkeying" with tanks to prevent 

a capacity cargo 100 

Ballast tanks, pointers on stability of 

steamers loading lumber 96 

Balsam, for pulp purposes 12 

Barrels, to compute capacities 92 

Big trees of California 68-70 

Bills of lading, to compute and convert 

lumber shipments in English money 105 

Black Cottonwood, properties and uses 86 

Board ft., to convert to lineal ft 22 

Board measure, contents by progressive 

addition 24 

Board measure defined 19 

Board measure, short rules for computing 21-22 
Board measure, short rules for computing 

square and rectangular timber 22 

Board measure table 16 

Board measure, explanation of table 17 

Board measure, to compute tapering lumber 23 

Board measurement of logs 34 

Bordeaux, distances to World Ports 113 

Brereton solid log table 35-36 

Brereton solid log table, advantages of,. 34 

Brest, distances to World Ports 114 

British Columbia, distances to B. C. and 

Puget Sound Ports 110-111 

British Columbia log grades 45 

British Columbia, log rule, construction of 45 

British Columbia log table 42-44 

British lumber measurements 27-28 

Buenos Aires, distances to World Ports 114 

Butt rot and brown streaks in cedar, cause 75 
C 

California, Redwood grades 71 

California Redwood, properties and uses. _ 68 

Caliper measure 27 

Callao, distances to World Ports 114 

Capacities, metric equivalents 88 

Cargo carrying capacity under and on deck, 

to compute 95-96 

Cargo, shipments of Douglas Fir pointers 

on carrying capacity 95 

Cargo shipments of paper, cubic stowage.. 104 
Car shipments, to compute lumber and 

shingle capacity 15 



Cargo specifications, rules for making 25 

Cargo stowage, calculations of weight & vol. 95 
Cargo stowage, selection of balanced cargo 94 
Cargo stowage, to secure maximum weight 

and volume of general 94 

Cargo tonnage, explanation of ... 94 

Case hardening and checking 56 

Cedar, cause of butt rot and brown streaks 75 

Cedar, Port Orford, description, uses, 75-76 

Cedar rust 75 

Cedar shingles 73-75 

Cedar, Western Red, properties and uses_. 73 

Checking and casehardening 56 

Chemainus, B. C, distances to B. C. and 

Puget Sound Ports 110 

Circumference, to compute contents of 

round timber by 40 

Cisterns, to compute capacities 92 

Coal and oil burning steamers, lumber 

carrying capacity compared 98-100 

Coal compared to oil as fuel 103 

Coal, to compute amount for voyage 96 

Collapse, cause of in seasoning 57 

Colon, distances to World Ports 115 

Columbia River, distances 113 

Cottonwood, for pulp purposes 12 

Cottonwood, properties and uses 86 

Cord, metric equivalent 89 

Cordwood, amounts and dimensions 14 

Cordwood, fuel value of wood and coal 15 

Cordwood, hemlock bark in cord 14 

Cordwood, relation between board, cubic 

and cord measure 14 

Cordwood, shingle bolts in IS 

Cordwood, solid contents 14 

Creosote, effect on cargo carrying capacity 11 

Crossings, definition of 28 

Crossings, export sizes 9-10 

Crossings, stowage of 97 

Crowntrees, definition of 28 

Cubic measures, fuel oil 101 

Cubic measures, salt and fresh water 93 

Cubic stowage, to compute 95-96 



Dead timber, value of 53 

Deadweight, to compute cargo capacity 96 

Deadweight, tonnage explanation 94 

Deals, British measure 27-28 

Decay, annual rings, density 54 

Decay and dry rot in Douglas Fir S3 

Deckloads, advantages of oil over coal burn- 
ing steamers 98 

Deckloads, how to dunnage 97 

Deckloads, British law 108-109 

Deckloads of ties, pointers 91 

Deckloads, pointers on lashing 97 

Deckloads, stanchions required 97 

Density of wood 54 

Destruction of wood by animal life 53 

Diameter growth of trees 52 

Diameters of logs to make square timbeis.. 38 
Difference between actual contents of 

logs and leading log scales 33 

Difference in time table 107 

Displacement tonnage, explanation 94 



140- 



INDEX 



Distances between ports — 

."• •' yapulco to Pacific Ports 112 

" itwerp to World Ports 112 

" tofia to Columbia River Ports 113 

•"'Astoria to Pacific Ports 113 

" Bordeaux to World Ports 113 

" Brest to World Ports 114 

" British Columbia Ports 110-111 

" Buenos Aires to World Ports 114 

" Callao to World Ports 114 

" Chemainus, B. C. to Domestic Ports.. 110 

" Colon to World Ports 115 

'♦ Columbia River Ports 113 

'* Eureka to Pacific Ports 117 

" Genoa Bay, B. C, to Domestic Ports. Ill 

" Genoa to World Ports 117 

" Gibralter to World Ports 118 

" Grays Harbor to Pacific Ports 119 

" Honolulu to World Ports 119 

" Tquique to World Ports 120 

" Liverpool to World Ports 121 

" London to World Ports 123 

" Los Angeles to World Ports 123 

" Manila to World Ports 124 

" Newport News to World Ports 125 

" Norfolk, Va., to World Ports-_ - 125 

" Palta, Peru, to World Ports 127 

" Panama to World Ports 12S 

" Port Townsend to World Ports 131 

'• Puget Sound and B. C. 110-111 

" San Diego to World Ports 134 

" San Francisco to Domestic Ports 139 

'• San Francisco to World Pores 134 

" San Pedro to World Ports 123 

" Willapa Harbor to Pacific Ports 137 

*' Yokohama to World Ports 138 

Division of mixed fractions 21 

Domestic Cargo shipments of Douglas Fir. 7 
Douglas fir— Cargo Shipments, Pointers. 

" on carrying capacity 95 

" Correct and various names 5 

'* Decay and dry rot in 53 

" Description and range 5 

" Export markets ° 

* ' Export shipments — 1920 6-7 

" For pulp purposes 12 

" Merits and uses 5-6 

" Metric weight 89 

' Preservative treatment of 60 

" Shingles 18 

" Staves 18 

" Strength compared to Baltic Timber.. 9 

*' Strength tests 8 

" Ti.'s, cargo shipments— 1920 9-10 

" Weight of clear H 

" Weight of Common and Mcht 10 

" Weight of creosoted 11 

" Weight of Green 10 

" Weight of Kiln Dried U 

" Weight of logs. ...- 11 

*' Weight to compute in tons 10 

Doyle, rule construction of 41 

Doyle — Scribner rule, construction of 41 

Draft, metric to compute and convert...- . 90 
Draft, to compute diflterences of immersion 92 
Durability of wood, scientific investigations 55 



English and United States money to com- 
pute and convert 105 

Eureka, distances to Pacific Ports 117 

Export, Douglas Fir, pointers on handling 

cargo shipments 95 

Export, Douglas Fir shipments — ^1920 6 

Export, Douglas Fir tie shipments 9 

Export, Hemlock for cargo shipments 85 

Export Redwood, pointers on handling cargo 

shipments -- '2 

Export shipments, to compute metric 
weights of lumber 89 

F 

Fathom British lathwood measure 27-28 

Fathom, nautical measure 92 

Feet to meters, table 91 

Fiber saturation point and shrinkage 56 

Fir Douglas, properties and uses 5 

Fir Grand, see White Fir 67 

Fir, Noble properties and uses 76 

Fir, White properties and uses 67 

Fire Killed timber result of tests 53 

Fire Killed timber, value of 53 

Fractions, addition of 20 

Fractions, division of 21 

Fractions, multiplication of -. 21 

Freight measurement of timber as used in 

England .-_ 28 

Freight measures, U. S. and British 92 

Freight on laths 18 

Freight on logs 34-37 

Freight on shingles 73 

Freight, to compute In English money 105 

Fungi, wood destroying 53 

G 

Genoa Bay, B. C, distances to B. C, and 

Puget Sound Ports HI 

Genoa, distances to Worid Ports 117 

Gibraltar, distances to World Ports 118 

Grading rules, California Redwood 71 

Grading rules, logs 45 

Grand Fir 67 

Grays Harbor, distances to Pacific Ports... 119 

Gross tonnage, explanation of 94 

Growth of trees 50-52 

H 

Hardwood and softwood terms 32 

Heartwood and sapwood defined 52 

Hemlock bark for tanning purposes 14 

Hemlock for pulp purposes 12 

Hemlock, pointers for cargo shippers 85 

Hemlock, properties and uses 84-85 

Hemlock, strength tests 8 

Hemlock, weight 85 

Honolulu, distances to World Ports 119 

I 

Idaho White Pine, properties and uses 79 

Immersion In salt and fresh water to com- 
pute and convert 92 

Inches to millimeters, table 90 

India, the white ant and Redwood ... 72 

India, tie shipments to — 10 

Iquique, distances to Chilean Ports 120 



141- 



INDEX 



Kiln drying common lumber 59 

Kiln drying lumber, some basic principles. 58 

Kilogram comparison table 88 

Kilometers to nautical miles, table 90 

Kilometers to U. S. miles, table 90 

Knots, how they are classified 41 

Knots, nautical measure 92 



Larch for pulp purposes 12 

Larch, Western, properties and uses 80-81 

Larch, Western, strength tests 8 

Last, "Riga" European lumber measure. .. 27 

Lath, contents, measurement, weight 18 

Lath, number required for room 18 

Lath, Redwood 72 

Lath to compute freight 18 

Lath, to cover 100 sq. yards 18 

Lengths, how to cut metric lumber orders 89 

Lengths, metric equivalents 88 

Lengths, to compute average 32, 

Liverpool, distances to World Ports 121 

Load line, explanation of 108 

Load of square or unhewn timbers (British 

measure) contents of 28 

Log grades, British Columbia 45 

Log grades, Columbia River 45 

Log rule, British Columbia, construction of 45 

Log rule, Doyle, construction of 41 

Log rule, Doyle-Scribner, construction of.. 41 

Log rule, Nineteen-inch standard 39 

Log rule, Ropp, to compute 39 

Log rule, Scribner, construction of 49 

Log rule, Spaulding, construction of 45 

Log rule, Spaulding, to compute 48 

Log rule, U. S. Shipping Board 37 

Log scales, table comparing differences be- 
tween actual contents and Pacific Coast 
log scales, also shows allowance for saw 

kerf and slabs 33 

Log table, Brereton solid contents 35-36 

Log table, Brereton, advantages of 34 

Log table, British Columbia 42-44 

Log table, Scribner 48-52 

Log table, Spaulding 46-47 

Log table showing actual contents from one 

inch to 100 inches in diameter 37 

Logs, board measurement of 34 

Logs, old growth 50 

Logs, to compute diameter necessary to 

make square timbers 38 

Logs, to compute contents by circumfer- 
ence or diameter 40 

Logs to compute freight on 34-37 

Logs, weight of Douglas Fir 11 

London, distances to World Ports 123 

Longitude and time, to compute 106 

Los Angeles Harbor (San Pedro) dis- 
tances to World Ports 123 



M 



Manila, distance to World Ports , ^'^^ 

Measures, nautical . ^n 

Meters to feet, table . .% 

Metric comparison scale 87 

Metric conversion tables 90-91 

Metric draft, to compute and convert 90 

Metric equivalents, area 87-88 

Metric equivalents, capacity 87-88 

Metric equivalents, volume 87-88 

Metric equivalents, weight or mass 87-88 

Metric lengths, how to cut lumber.. 89 

Metric lengths used in Europe 89 

Metric sizes used in Europe 89 

Metric specifications, to compute 89 

Metric system, synopsis 86 

Metric unit of lumber measure 89 

Metric weight, Douglas Fir 89 

Miles, nautical comparison of European 92 

Miles, nautical to Kilometers, table 90 

Moisture content of lumber to determine.. 60 

Multiplication of fractions 21 

Multiplication, short cuts 20 



N 

Nautical miles to kilometers, table 90 

Nautical weights and measures 92 

Net tonnage, explanation 94 

Newport News, distances to World Ports.. 125 

Nineteen inch standard log rule 39 

Noble Fir for pulp purposes 13 

Noble Fir properties and uses 76 

Norfolk, Va., distances to World Ports 125 



Octagon spars, how to make 28 

Octagon table for making octagons out of 

square timbers 30 

Octagon, to compute contents of 29 

Octagon, to compute contents of tapering 

octagon 29 

Oil, advantages of oil as fuel for steamers 

carrying lumber 98 

Oil and coal burning steamers, lumber carry- 
ing capacity compared 98-100 

Oil and coal compared 101 

Oil and water tanks, to determine capacity 101 
Oil burning steamers, examples showing 

actual capacity and stowage 98 

Oil equivalents, table 102 

Oil fuel, advantages over coal 103 

Oil Petroleum 101 

" British thermal unit. 101 

" Chill or cold test 101 

" Density 101 

" Equivalents 101-102 

" Fire point 101 

" Flash point 101 

" Heat values 101 

' ' Specific gravity 101 

•" Vicosity 101 

Old growth logs 50 

Oregon Pine, see Douglas Fir 5 



INDEX 



■jfliJM . distances to World Ports 127 

V^H hia canal, length 106 

f ^^»fiama, distances to World Ports 128 

Paper shipments in conjunction with 

Douglas Fir and Redwood 103 

Paper, cubic stowage 104 

Paper, dimensions and weight of export 

rolls : 103 

Paper, how to dunnage and stow 104 

Paper making described 12 

Paper, wood required to make 13 

Percentages, to decrease or increase specn's 25 

Petrogad standard, composition of 27 

Petrogad standard, to compute 27 

Petrograd standard, why its use should be 

abolished 2^) 

Pickets, contents, grade, measurement, 

weight 15 

Piline, life of treated and untreated 65 

Pine, Idaho White, description 79 

Pine, Jack, for pulp purposes 12 

Pine, Loblolly, strencth tests 8-79 

Pine, Longleal, strength tests 8-79 

Pine, Northern White, strength tests 79 

Pine, Norway, strength tests 8-79 

Pine, Shortleaf, strength tests 8-79 

Pine, Sugar, properties and uses 79-80 

Pine, Western White, properties, uses, 

weight, production 77-78 

Pine, Western White, strength tests 79 

Pine, White, for pulp purposes 12 

Pine, White, Western and Eastern com- 
pared 79 

Pine Yellow for pulp purposes 12 

PlimsoU marks, explanation 108 

Polygon, to compute contents 29 

Port Orford Cedar, properties, uses and 

shipping ports 75-76 

Port Townsend, distances to World Ports., 131 



Preservative Treatment of Wood 60 

Bethell or full cell process 64 

Boiling process 65 

Boulton, boiling under vacuum pro- 
cess 65 

Burnett, zinc chloride process 64 

" Card process 65 

Colman or steaming process 64 

" Creosote oil process 65 

" Douglas Fir, special reference 60 

Lowry or empty cell process 64 

Modern methods 63 

" Non-pressure processes 63 

Penetration 62 

Perforation before treatment 66 

Perforation of ties explained 66 

Pressure processes 64 

Rueping, empty cell process 64 

Service data 65 

Zinc cloride process 65 

Puget Sound distances to Domestic and 
B.C. Ports 110-111 



Pulp Wood 12 

Alaska supply 14 

Approx. cost of erecting mill 12 

British Columbia supply 14 

Consumption in California, Oregon 

and Washington 13 

Cordwood yield per ton 14 

Effect of age on pulp wood trees 13 

Process, ground wood 12 

Process, soda 12 

Process, sulphate 12 

Process, sulphite 12 

Tests, Aspen 12 

" Balsam 12 

" Cottonwood 12 

" Douglas Fir 12 

" Hemlock 12 

" Larch 12 

" Pine, Jack 12 

" Pine, White 12 

" Pine, Yellow 12 

" Spruce, Engleman 12 

White Fir, uses of 67 

Wood required to make paper 13 

Woods suitable for sulphite pulp 13 

R 

Radial, explanation of term 57 

Redwood and the teredo 71 

Redwood and the white ant 72 

Redwood, durability of ties 70 

Redwood, grading rules 71 

Redwood, properties and uses 68 

Redwood, shingles 72 

Redwood, strength tests 8 

Redwood, weights for export 72 

Rickers, definition of 28 

Riga Last, European measure 27 

Ropp log rule, to compute 39 

Round timber, to compute contents 40 



San Diego, distances to World Ports 134 

San Francisco, distances to B. C, Mexican 

and domestic ports 139 

San Francisco, distances to World Ports... 134 
San Pedro (Los Angeles Harbor) distances 

to World Ports 123 

Sap, explanation of the term 52 

Sapwood and heartwood defined 52 

Sawing octagon timbers 28 

Sawing, taper, new method 38 

Sawing timbers, correct methods 39 

Scribner log table 48-52 

Scribner rule, construction of 49 

Seasoning before treatment 1 48 

Seasoning of wood, case hardening, checking 

collapse, fiber saturation, shrinkage. _56-57 

Seasoning, how wood may be injured in 56 

Seasoning of wood, proper methods 56 

Shingle bolts in cord 15 

Shingles, covering capacity 73-74 

Shingles, cubic stowage 73 

Shingles, Douglas Fir 18 

Shingles, Factors for converting squares and 

thousands 75 



-14H- 



INDEX 



Shingles in 1000 ft. log scale 73 

Shingles, Redwood 72 

Shingles, square pack described 74 

Shingles, square unit, to compute 75 

Shingles, to compute number that can be 

loaded In box cars 15 

Shingles, weights 73-75 

Shingles, Western Red Cedar described.. .73-75 
Shipping Board rule for determining freight 

on logs 37 

Shipping weights and measures U. S. and 

British 92 

Sitka Spruce, properties and uses 82-84 

Sleepers, definition of 28 

Softwood and hardwood terms 32 

Spaulding log table 46-47 

Spaulding rule, construction of 45 

Spaulding rule, to compute 48 

Specifications, metric, to compute and con- 
vert ---- 89 

Specifications, short methods of computing. 25 

Specific gravity, to compute 55 

Spruce, Engleman for pulp purposes 12 

Spruce, Western, properties and uses 82-84 

Square timber, to compute diameter to 

make 38 

Stability of steamers loading lumber 96 

Stack ' ' British' ' contents of 28 

Standards, composition of Christiania 
Drammen, Drontheim, Irish, London 

Petrograd, Wyburg 27 

Staves, Douglas Fir 18 

Sterling, to compute lumber shipments in 

English money 105 

Sterling, to convert English and U. S. money 105 
Stowage, cargo, calculations of weight and 

volume 95 

Stowage, general cargo, to secure maximum 

weight and volume 94 

Stowage, "monkeying" with tanks to 

prevent capacity cargoes 100 

Stowage of crossings 97 

Stowage of lumber cargoes 95-98 

Stowage of paper shipments 103 

Stowage, selection of balanced cargo 94 

Strength of wood, causes of variations 54 

Strength tests 8 

" Baltic Timber 9 

" Douglas Fir 8 

" Hemlock 8 

" Larch, Western 8 

" Pine, LobloUv 8-79 

" Pine, Longleaf 8-79 

" Pine, Northern White 79 

" Pine, Norway 8-79 

" Pine, Shortleaf 8-79 

" Pine, Western White 79 

" Redwood, California 8 

" Tamarack 8 

String measure 27 

Surfaces of lumber, explanation 57 

Sugar Pine, properties and uses 79-80 



Tamarack, strength tests 8 

Tangential, explanation of term 57 

Tanks, to compute capacities 92-101 



Tapering lumber, to compute contents 23 

Tapering octagons, to compute contents... 29 

Tapering round timbers, to compute .^ '''^ 

Taper sawing, new method •jg 

Teredo, article on the jr ^ 

Thickness, to compute average 31-32 

Ties, Atlantic Coast shipments — 1920 9 

Ties, Douglas Fir foreign cargo shipments 

—1920 . 9 

Ties, durability of various species 70 

Ties, life of treated and untreated 65 

Ties, number per mile 10 

Ties, strength of Douglas Fir and Baltic 

timber compared 9 

Ties, Redwood, durability of 70 

Timbers, correct methods of sawing 39 

Timber measurements used in England 28 

Timbers, square and rectangular short 

methods for computing contents 22 

Time and longitude to compute 106 

Time, benefit of table of difference 106 

Time occupied on voyages to compute 106 

Time table, difference between Pacific Coast 

and countries of World 107 

Tonnage, explanation of cargo, deadweight 

displacement, gross and net 94 

Tons, metric equivalents 88 

Tons, U. S. and British shipping measures. 92 

Townsend, distances to World Ports 131 

Tree borer 55 

Trees, growth 52 

W 

Warping, cause of in seasoning 57 

Water, fresh and salt, table of equi- 
valents 93 

Water, to compute immersion 92 

Weights and measures of lumber as 

used in England 28 

Weights, British shipping 92 

Weights, Nautical 92 

Weights, U. S. Shipping 92 

Weights, creosote effect on carrying 

capacity 11 

Weight, Douglas Fir 10-11 

Weight, Douglas Fir, creosoted 11 

Weight, Lath 18 

Weight, Metric 88 

Weight, Paper for Export 103 

Weight, Pickets 15 

Weight, Redwood 72 

Weight, to compute car capacity of 

lumber and shingles 15 

Western Cedar properties and uses 73 

Western Hemlock properties and uses 84-85 
W'estern Larch, properties and uses ..80-81 
Western Spruce properties and uses.. 82-84 
Western White Pine, properties, uses 

weight production 77-78 

White Fir, properties and uses 67 

Widths, to computeaverage 31 

Wlllapa Harbor, distances to Pacific 

Coast Ports 137 

Wood preservatives 61 

Y 

Yellow Pine, see White Pine 77-79 

Yokohama, distances to World Ports.. 138 



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